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class=\"is-style-default wp-block-paragraph\">\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[79,11,25,26,27],"post-23",{"quote":81},"Find the latest blog posts from the Center for Building in North America below.",{"self":83,"collection":88,"about":90,"author":92,"replies":95,"version-history":98,"predecessor-version":102,"wp:attachment":106,"curies":109},[84],{"href":85,"targetHints":86},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F23",{"allow":87},[35],[89],{"href":38},[91],{"href":41},[93],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fusers\u002F1",[96],{"embeddable":44,"href":97},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=23",[99],{"count":100,"href":101},26,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F23\u002Frevisions",[103],{"id":104,"href":105},559,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F23\u002Frevisions\u002F559",[107],{"href":108},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=23",[110],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":112,"date":113,"date_gmt":113,"guid":114,"modified":116,"modified_gmt":116,"slug":117,"status":10,"type":11,"link":118,"title":119,"content":121,"excerpt":122,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"parent":20,"menu_order":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":123,"class_list":124,"acf":126,"_links":131},2,"2025-02-03T09:27:21",{"rendered":115},"http:\u002F\u002Flbo.bab.mytemp.website\u002F?page_id=2","2025-10-04T20:42:49","home","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fhome\u002F",{"rendered":120},"Home",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[125,11,25,26,27],"post-2",{"quote":127,"introduction":128,"gallery":129},"The Center for Building is a non-profit that conducts research on building codes and standards, and advocates for reform in the United States and Canada.","\u003Cp>Cities in North America need to get back to building housing, but our construction industry has a problem. Apartment buildings are expensive to build, and expensive to maintain. Our codes are oriented towards sprawling single-family houses and luxury apartments for singles and childless couples, and little in between.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Our apartment buildings are inefficient, both in terms of energy and layouts. Family-friendly apartments are unaffordable to families, and the United States has a higher rate of building fire deaths than almost any other country in the developed world. North America takes a unique approach to regulating construction, and it’s not working. It’s time to learn from the rest of the world, and find out what works.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"image_1":130,"image_2":16,"image_3":16},536,{"self":132,"collection":137,"about":139,"author":141,"replies":143,"version-history":146,"predecessor-version":150,"wp:attachment":154,"curies":157},[133],{"href":134,"targetHints":135},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F2",{"allow":136},[35],[138],{"href":38},[140],{"href":41},[142],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[144],{"embeddable":44,"href":145},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=2",[147],{"count":148,"href":149},18,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F2\u002Frevisions",[151],{"id":152,"href":153},892,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F2\u002Frevisions\u002F892",[155],{"href":156},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=2",[158],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":160,"date":161,"date_gmt":161,"guid":162,"modified":164,"modified_gmt":164,"slug":165,"status":10,"type":11,"link":166,"title":167,"content":169,"excerpt":170,"author":19,"featured_media":20,"parent":20,"menu_order":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":171,"class_list":172,"acf":174,"_links":186},231,"2024-12-16T21:30:01",{"rendered":163},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?page_id=231","2025-02-03T11:13:50","footer-pre-footer","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ffooter-pre-footer\u002F",{"rendered":168},"Footer, Pre-Footer",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[173,11,25,26,27],"post-231",{"show_prefooter":17,"prefooter_title":16,"prefooter_text":175,"prefooter_cta":176,"footer_title":16,"footer_copyright":179,"footer_firstmail":180,"footer_secondmail":182},"\u003Cp class=\"text-base\" data-v-inspector=\"components\u002FpreFooter.vue:10:13\">We’re always looking for people to talk to – developers, contractors, architects, and anybody who would like to help reform codes in their own city or state. Please get in touch and let’s talk about how we can work together.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"label":177,"link":178},"CONTACT US","info@centerforbuilding.org","\u003Cp>Center for Building in North America, Inc.\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nBrooklyn, New York\u003C\u002Fp>",{"label":181,"mail":178},"General contact",{"role":183,"label":184,"mail":185},"Executive director","Stephen Smith","stephen@centerforbuilding.org",{"self":187,"collection":192,"about":194,"author":196,"replies":198,"version-history":201,"predecessor-version":205,"wp:attachment":209,"curies":212},[188],{"href":189,"targetHints":190},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F231",{"allow":191},[35],[193],{"href":38},[195],{"href":41},[197],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[199],{"embeddable":44,"href":200},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=231",[202],{"count":203,"href":204},17,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F231\u002Frevisions",[206],{"id":207,"href":208},556,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F231\u002Frevisions\u002F556",[210],{"href":211},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=231",[213],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":215,"date":216,"date_gmt":216,"guid":217,"modified":219,"modified_gmt":219,"slug":220,"status":10,"type":11,"link":221,"title":222,"content":224,"excerpt":225,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"parent":20,"menu_order":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":226,"class_list":227,"acf":229,"_links":244},25,"2024-12-10T07:58:32",{"rendered":218},"http:\u002F\u002Flbo.bab.mytemp.website\u002F?page_id=25","2026-05-18T15:41:50","trackers","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackers\u002F",{"rendered":223},"Reform trackers",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[228,11,25,26,27],"post-25",{"quote":230,"countries_filter_label":231,"states_filter_label":232,"cities_filter_label":233,"introduction":234,"zoom_limits":235,"sections":239},"Reform efforts across North America","Countries","States","Cities","\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The Center for Building in North America’s goal is to drive change in construction through research. We track reform efforts – through model code proposals, legislation, and executive action – across a number of building systems in the United States and Canada, which you can find on this page.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>For corrections, updates, or questions about information on this page, contact William Skudlarek at \u003Ca href=\"mailto:william@centerforbuilding.org\">william@centerforbuilding.org\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"zoom_min_desktop":236,"zoom_max_desktop":237,"zoom_min_mobile":112,"zoom_max_mobile":238},3.8,8,6,{"section_title_1":240,"section_text_1":241,"section_title_2":242,"section_text_2":243,"section_title_3":16,"section_text_3":16},"Single-stair","\u003Cdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>Bills and code proposals have been introduced and passed in multiple cities, states, and at the national model code level to reform means of egress rules around stairs, to bring North American jurisdictions a bit closer in line with the global standard of allowing at least small, mid-rise apartment buildings with only a single stair.\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003C\u002Fdiv>","Elevators","\u003Cp>Following the Center for Building's report on the high cost of elevators in North America, some efforts are under way to tackle some of the issues noted – around cabin size requirements, technical safety code harmonization, and building code requirements related to how we build and maintain elevators.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":245,"collection":250,"about":252,"author":254,"replies":256,"version-history":259,"predecessor-version":263,"wp:attachment":267,"curies":270},[246],{"href":247,"targetHints":248},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F25",{"allow":249},[35],[251],{"href":38},[253],{"href":41},[255],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[257],{"embeddable":44,"href":258},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=25",[260],{"count":261,"href":262},39,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F25\u002Frevisions",[264],{"id":265,"href":266},991,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F25\u002Frevisions\u002F991",[268],{"href":269},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=25",[271],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":273,"date":274,"date_gmt":274,"guid":275,"modified":277,"modified_gmt":277,"slug":278,"status":10,"type":11,"link":279,"title":280,"content":282,"excerpt":284,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"parent":20,"menu_order":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":286,"class_list":287,"acf":289,"_links":319},29,"2024-12-05T07:58:12",{"rendered":276},"http:\u002F\u002Flbo.bab.mytemp.website\u002F?page_id=29","2026-05-19T00:58:39","about","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fabout\u002F",{"rendered":281},"About",{"rendered":283,"protected":17},"\r\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Center for Building in North America was founded in 2022, with the goal of studying building codes and construction policy in the United States and Canada in comparative global context, and proposing avenues for reform to bring our codes in line with those in other developed countries.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">We will be publishing research on the construction industry, codes, and practices, focusing first on vertical circulation – things like staircases and elevators, which make up the core of our buildings. While these elements are easy to overlook, they define how buildings are laid out, and can be the difference between apartment buildings with long, hotel-like double-loaded corridors with all luxury studio and one-bedroom apartments on the one hand, and buildings with more efficient, family-friendly layouts on the other.\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\n\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nThe United States and Canada are global outliers in many aspects of multifamily design and construction, and much of our research will focus on introducing North Americans to standard ways of building abroad – especially practices in high-income democracies in Europe, Asia, and Oceania, with better fire safety outcomes than ours – and comparing the codes that drive these differences in costs, livability, efficiency, and safety.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond research, the Center for Building provides technical assistance to groups in the United States and Canada who are interested in bringing international best practice to our own codes and construction industries.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\r\n\r\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n",{"rendered":285,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>The Center for Building in North America was founded in 2022, with the goal of studying building codes and construction policy in the United States and Canada in comparative global context, and proposing avenues for reform to bring our codes in line with those in other developed countries. We will be publishing research on the […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[288,11,25,26,27],"post-29",{"quote":290,"team":291,"board":306},"About us",{"team_member":292,"team_member_2":295,"team_member_3":300,"team_member_4":305},{"name":184,"appointment":293,"profession":16,"email_address":185,"image":16,"description":294},"Executive Director","\u003Cp>Stephen founded the Center for Building in 2022, after a career in journalism covering real estate, planning, and transportation, and then a stint at a real estate tech start-up.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>He lives in a five-story building in Brooklyn with a single stairway (and no fire escape) built in 2015, and wishes it had an elevator.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"name":296,"appointment":297,"profession":16,"email_address":298,"image":16,"description":299},"John Lansing","Director of Plumbing Standards Research and Development","john.lansing@centerforbuilding.org","\u003Cp>John joined the Center for Building in September 2025, after a career as a plumbing designer. He sits on a number of plumbing code committees around the world, and had contributed to a number of code sections in the Uniform Plumbing Code before joining the Center for Building.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>He lives in Portland, Oregon in a mixed-use, all-electric apartment building with tilt-and-turn windows, within walking distance to seven full-sized grocery stores.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"name":301,"appointment":302,"profession":16,"email_address":303,"image":16,"description":304},"William Skudlarek","Policy Analyst","william@centerforbuilding.org","\u003Cp>William joined the Center for Building in May 2026, after an early career as a certified public accountant auditing real estate company financial statements and a lifelong interest in the built environment.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>He lives in a classic Chicago brick and block four-story courtyard building. Much to his dismay, his unit's windows, plumbing, and electrical wiring all date back to the original 1928 construction.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"name":16,"appointment":16,"profession":16,"email_address":16,"image":16,"description":16},{"team_member":307,"team_member_2":310,"team_member_3":313,"team_member_4":316},{"name":308,"appointment":16,"profession":16,"email_address":16,"image":16,"description":309},"Michael Eliason","\u003Cp>Michael is an architect, and and founder of Larch Lab in Seattle. His formative work experience was in Germany, where he learned how out of step American codes and practices are from the rest of the world. He has inspired a movement across the US and Canada to find alternatives to the double-loaded corridor, including the Center for Building.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>He lives in an accessory dwelling unit with his family in Seattle. While he appreciates the abundant natural light and ventilation, he is looking forward to the day when the city embraces proper, family-friendly point access block apartments – ideally mass timber ones built to passive house standards.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"name":311,"appointment":16,"profession":16,"email_address":16,"image":16,"description":312},"Ben Furnas","\u003Cp>Ben is the executive director of Transportation Alternatives, a non-profit group that advocates to make New York City more pedestrian-, bike-, and transit-friendly. He was previously the executive director of The 2030 Project, a Cornell University initiative to accelerate climate solutions, and before that, director of the New York City Mayor’s Office of Climate and Sustainability, under Mayor Bill de Blasio.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>He lives with his family in a second-story apartment in Brooklyn, which has both north- and south-facing light, thanks to its single-stair floor plan.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"name":314,"appointment":16,"profession":16,"email_address":16,"image":16,"description":315},"Julia Vitullo-Martin","\u003Cp>Julia is a political scientist and journalist, who served as editor of Mayor Koch’s Commission on the Year 2000, assistant commissioner for Policy and Planning at the NYC Department of Parks and Recreation, executive director of the Citizens Housing and Planning Council, senior fellow at several think tanks, and too many other roles to count.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>She lives in a courtyard building on Manhattan’s West Side, which would be illegal to build today for more reasons than Julia’s had jobs. She enjoys light on multiple sides, cross-ventilated windows, and a perfectly serviceable elevator that, during a building-wide renovation, was replaced, as mandated by the Department of Buildings.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"name":317,"appointment":16,"profession":16,"email_address":16,"image":16,"description":318},"John Zeanah","\u003Cp>John Zeanah, AICP is the Chief of Development and Infrastructure for the City of Memphis, Tennessee. In this role, he leads a cross-functional team of agencies responsible for planning, building safety, housing, transportation, public works, and community and economic development. Prior to this role, John served as the Director of the Memphis and Shelby County Division of Planning and Development for over seven years. Among his accomplishments, John led the development and adoption of the Memphis 3.0 Comprehensive Plan, the City’s first comprehensive plan in 40 years and winner of the American Planning Association’s Daniel Burnham Award of Excellence for a Comprehensive Plan in 2020 and a Charter Award from the Congress for the New Urbanism in 2021. John is also Principal and Owner of Interval, LLC, a planning and policy advisory firm that specializes in helping public sector clients better understand, implement, and improve their plans, policies, codes, regulations, and processes.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":320,"collection":325,"about":327,"author":329,"replies":331,"version-history":334,"predecessor-version":338,"wp:attachment":342,"curies":345},[321],{"href":322,"targetHints":323},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F29",{"allow":324},[35],[326],{"href":38},[328],{"href":41},[330],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[332],{"embeddable":44,"href":333},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=29",[335],{"count":336,"href":337},33,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F29\u002Frevisions",[339],{"id":340,"href":341},993,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F29\u002Frevisions\u002F993",[343],{"href":344},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=29",[346],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":336,"date":348,"date_gmt":348,"guid":349,"modified":351,"modified_gmt":351,"slug":352,"status":10,"type":11,"link":353,"title":354,"content":356,"excerpt":357,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"parent":20,"menu_order":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":358,"class_list":359,"acf":361,"_links":363},"2024-12-03T07:56:46",{"rendered":350},"http:\u002F\u002Flbo.bab.mytemp.website\u002F?page_id=33","2025-02-03T20:52:27","contact","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fcontact\u002F",{"rendered":355},"Mailing list",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[360,11,25,26,27],"post-33",{"text":362,"showhide_terms":17,"showhide_subscribe":17},"\u003Cp>Sign up below for the Center for Building in North America's mailing list. We will never sell your contact information, and we will be judicious with the frequency of e-mails.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":364,"collection":369,"about":371,"author":373,"replies":375,"version-history":378,"predecessor-version":381,"wp:attachment":385,"curies":388},[365],{"href":366,"targetHints":367},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F33",{"allow":368},[35],[370],{"href":38},[372],{"href":41},[374],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[376],{"embeddable":44,"href":377},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=33",[379],{"count":238,"href":380},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F33\u002Frevisions",[382],{"id":383,"href":384},560,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F33\u002Frevisions\u002F560",[386],{"href":387},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=33",[389],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":391,"date":392,"date_gmt":392,"guid":393,"modified":395,"modified_gmt":395,"slug":396,"status":10,"type":11,"link":397,"title":398,"content":400,"excerpt":401,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"parent":20,"menu_order":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":402,"class_list":403,"acf":405,"_links":411},31,"2024-12-03T07:56:38",{"rendered":394},"http:\u002F\u002Flbo.bab.mytemp.website\u002F?page_id=31","2026-03-12T15:52:15","donate","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fdonate\u002F",{"rendered":399},"Donate",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[404,11,25,26,27],"post-31",{"quote":406,"donorbox":407,"contactus":408,"contact_us_email_address":409,"bottomtext":410},"The Center for Building is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization.","\u003Cp class=\"text-base14 mt-8\" data-v-inspector=\"components\u002FopenDonateSection.vue:15:17\">We rely on donations to fund our research and advocacy, and do not produce anything for private use. In order to maintain our independence, we do not accept money from product manufacturers, and our funding from the real estate and construction industries has been limited to less than 10 percent of our total budget.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp class=\"text-base14 mt-8\" data-v-inspector=\"components\u002FopenDonateSection.vue:21:17\">To make a one-time or recurring donation, you can give using our Donorbox site. You can also find us on Benevity and donor-advised fund portals. Small donations help us keep the lights on and meet the IRS's \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.irs.gov\u002Fcharities-non-profits\u002Fexempt-organizations-annual-reporting-requirements-form-990-schedules-a-and-b-public-charity-support-test\">public charity support test\u003C\u002Fa>, and we very much appreciate them.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp class=\"text-base14 mt-8\" data-v-inspector=\"components\u002FopenDonateSection.vue:26:17\">If you’d like to discuss a direct or larger donation, please email Stephen, the Center for Building’s executive director.\u003C\u002Fp>","stephen@centerforbuilding.com","\u003Cp>The Center for Building in North America, Inc. is a registered non-profit in the United States under IRS Section 501(c)(3), with a taxpayer identification number of 88-3531896, and your donations may be tax-deductible.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":412,"collection":417,"about":419,"author":421,"replies":423,"version-history":426,"predecessor-version":430,"wp:attachment":434,"curies":437},[413],{"href":414,"targetHints":415},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F31",{"allow":416},[35],[418],{"href":38},[420],{"href":41},[422],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[424],{"embeddable":44,"href":425},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=31",[427],{"count":428,"href":429},12,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F31\u002Frevisions",[431],{"id":432,"href":433},984,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpages\u002F31\u002Frevisions\u002F984",[435],{"href":436},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=31",[438],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[440,483,517,551,590,626,662,698,732,766,801,835,871,909,944,979,1014,1049,1084,1121,1157,1194,1231,1266,1301,1336,1369,1405,1440,1477,1512,1547,1582,1619,1652,1685,1720,1753,1788,1823,1857,1893,1930,1963,1998,2034,2067,2102,2135,2170,2205,2241,2274,2305,2340,2378,2411,2446,2481],{"id":441,"date":442,"date_gmt":442,"guid":443,"modified":442,"modified_gmt":442,"slug":445,"status":10,"type":446,"link":447,"title":448,"content":450,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":451,"class_list":452,"acf":455,"_links":463},1007,"2026-05-26T21:18:35",{"rendered":444},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=1007","puerto-rico","trackersmap","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fpuerto-rico\u002F",{"rendered":449},"Puerto Rico",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[453,446,454,26,27],"post-1007","type-trackersmap",{"place":449,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":459,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":460,"description":462,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},"state-label",null,465,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"single-stairs","\u003Cp>From \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fapp.estado.gobierno.pr\u002FReglamentosOnLine\u002FReglamentos\u002F8222ING.pdf#page=50\">2011\u003C\u002Fa> to 2018, Puerto Rico’s building codes allowed single-stair multifamily buildings up to five stories and four units per story. In 2018, this allowance was reduced to only allow buildings up to four stories. Further, the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fpuerto_rico\u002Fibc-2018\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.3\">2018 code\u003C\u002Fa> added new requirements that single-stair buildings must be equipped with NFPA 13R sprinklers and each unit must have access to at least one emergency escape and rescue opening. It is unknown exactly how many single-stair buildings taller than three stories have been built, but there have been at least \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Fmaps\u002F@18.4635132,-66.0978808,151m\u002Fdata=!3m1!1e3?entry=ttu&g_ep=EgoyMDI2MDUyNS4wIKXMDSoASAFQAw%3D%3D\">some in San Juan\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":464,"collection":469,"about":472,"acf:post":475,"wp:attachment":478,"curies":481},[465],{"href":466,"targetHints":467},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F1007",{"allow":468},[35],[470],{"href":471},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap",[473],{"href":474},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftypes\u002Ftrackersmap",[476],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F465",[479],{"href":480},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1007",[482],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":484,"date":485,"date_gmt":485,"guid":486,"modified":485,"modified_gmt":485,"slug":488,"status":10,"type":446,"link":489,"title":490,"content":492,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":493,"class_list":494,"acf":496,"_links":500},1006,"2026-05-22T18:24:16",{"rendered":487},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=1006","georgia","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fgeorgia\u002F",{"rendered":491},"Georgia",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[495,446,454,26,27],"post-1006",{"place":491,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":497,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":498,"description":499,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Unlike most states with statewide codes, Georgia does not adopt the entirety of the International Building Code and strikes several chapters, including Chapter 10 (Means of Egress). Instead the state adopts the National Fire Protection Association’s Life Safety code, or NFPA 101, with some minor amendments. As a result, Georgia has followed NFPA 101 single-stair code requirements (see United States tracker for more details on NFPA 101) and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fgeorgia\u002Fnfpa-101-2024\u002Fchapter\u002F30\u002Fnew-apartment-buildings#30.2.4.6\">currently permits\u003C\u002Fa> four-story single-stair buildings.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":501,"collection":506,"about":508,"acf:post":510,"wp:attachment":512,"curies":515},[502],{"href":503,"targetHints":504},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F1006",{"allow":505},[35],[507],{"href":471},[509],{"href":474},[511],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[513],{"href":514},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1006",[516],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":518,"date":519,"date_gmt":519,"guid":520,"modified":519,"modified_gmt":519,"slug":522,"status":10,"type":446,"link":523,"title":524,"content":526,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":527,"class_list":528,"acf":530,"_links":534},1005,"2026-05-22T18:23:36",{"rendered":521},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=1005","vermont","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fvermont\u002F",{"rendered":525},"Vermont",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[529,446,454,26,27],"post-1005",{"place":525,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":531,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":532,"description":533,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Unlike most states with statewide codes, Vermont does not adopt the entirety of the International Building Code, but rather strikes several chapters, including Chapter 10 (Means of Egress). Instead, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Ffiresafety.vermont.gov\u002Fbuildingcode\u002Fcodes\">since at least 1972\u003C\u002Fa>, the state has adopted the National Fire Protection Association’s Life Safety code, or NFPA 101, with some minor amendments. As a result, Vermont has followed NFPA 101 single-stair code requirements (see United States tracker for more details on NFPA 101). It is unknown how many four-story single-stair buildings have been built in Vermont, but there are at least two in Burlington – one \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fthehoodplant.com\u002Fhood-residences\u002F\">condo building\u003C\u002Fa> (with a plan available \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fx.com\u002Fseanjurs\u002Fstatus\u002F1772715717185421415\">here\u003C\u002Fa>), and one \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fvermontbiz.com\u002Fnews\u002F2024\u002Fjuly\u002F29\u002F16-permanently-affordable-apartments-open-families-exiting-homelessness\">affordable rental building\u003C\u002Fa> for families exiting homelessness.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Jan. 2024, the Vermont Division of Fire Safety issued a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegislature.vermont.gov\u002Fassets\u002FLegislative-Reports\u002F01-12-24-Act-47-An-Act-Relating-to-Housing-Opportunities-made-for-Everyone.pdf#page=9\">report\u003C\u002Fa> to the state legislature, in response to a housing supply \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegislature.vermont.gov\u002FDocuments\u002F2024\u002FDocs\u002FACTS\u002FACT047\u002FACT047%20As%20Enacted.pdf\">law\u003C\u002Fa> signed by Gov. Phil Scott in June 2023, that discussed potential revisions to the state’s construction codes that would increase production of residential units. One of the revisions discussed in the report was to broaden the NFPA 101 single-stair exception to permit up to six units per floor, instead of four, while maintaining the four-story height limit.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Nov. 2025, the division updated its building codes and as contemplated in the 2024 report, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Ffiresafety.vermont.gov\u002Fsites\u002Ffiresafety\u002Ffiles\u002FRules\u002F2025%20Vermont%20Fire%20%26%20Building%20Safety%20Code.pdf#page=10\">increased the single-stair unit count limitation\u003C\u002Fa> from four units per story to six units, at \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fvermont\u002Fnfpa-101-2021\u002Fchapter\u002F30\u002Fnew-apartment-buildings#30.2.4.6\">30.2.4.6\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":535,"collection":540,"about":542,"acf:post":544,"wp:attachment":546,"curies":549},[536],{"href":537,"targetHints":538},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F1005",{"allow":539},[35],[541],{"href":471},[543],{"href":474},[545],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[547],{"href":548},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1005",[550],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":552,"date":553,"date_gmt":553,"guid":554,"modified":556,"modified_gmt":556,"slug":557,"status":10,"type":446,"link":558,"title":559,"content":561,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":562,"class_list":563,"acf":565,"_links":573},1004,"2026-05-20T19:47:30",{"rendered":555},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=1004","2026-05-20T20:21:36","anchorage","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fanchorage\u002F",{"rendered":560},"Anchorage",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[564,446,454,26,27],"post-1004",{"place":560,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":458,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":567,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":571,"description":572,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},"settlement-minor-label",{"typology":568,"name_state":569,"name_country":570},"state","Alaska","United States",[461],"\u003Cp>During their code cycle update process in 2025-26, Anchorage city staff, in consultation with the fire department and the local building code board, \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F05\u002FAO_2026-33_6_EXHIBIT_D_-_LETTER_TO_AK_FIRE_MARSHAL.DOCX.pdf\">proposed\u003C\u002Fa> amending the city’s building code to allow single-stair buildings up to six stories subject to certain conditions. As state law permits Anchorage to only adopt building codes that are at least as stringent as the state building code, the state fire marshal required the city to add additional requirements on the construction type and corridor separation. On April 14, 2026, the Anchorage Assembly unanimously passed the updated building code recommended by staff, including the \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F05\u002FAnchorage-enacted-single-stair-code.pdf\">single-stair provisions\u003C\u002Fa>, and they took effect on May 18, 2026.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":574,"collection":579,"about":581,"acf:post":583,"wp:attachment":585,"curies":588},[575],{"href":576,"targetHints":577},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F1004",{"allow":578},[35],[580],{"href":471},[582],{"href":474},[584],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[586],{"href":587},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1004",[589],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":591,"date":592,"date_gmt":592,"guid":593,"modified":592,"modified_gmt":592,"slug":595,"status":10,"type":446,"link":596,"title":597,"content":599,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":600,"class_list":601,"acf":603,"_links":608},1003,"2026-05-20T19:46:08",{"rendered":594},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=1003","denver","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fdenver\u002F",{"rendered":598},"Denver",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[602,446,454,26,27],"post-1003",{"place":598,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":604,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":605,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":606,"description":607,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},202,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In response to the enactment of HB25-1273 (see Colorado tracker for more details), the Denver City Council began considering code changes to allow single-stair up to five stories in mid-2025. After consultation with the fire department and other stakeholders, on Nov. 24, 2025, the city council ultimately \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdenver.legistar.com\u002FLegislationDetail.aspx?ID=7717234&GUID=B66A16D1-7976-403B-B7F3-593B744ABA15\">passed\u003C\u002Fa> an updated building code allowing four and five-story single-stair buildings. Four stories are permitted with similar conditions to E24-24 as well as 44-inch wide stairwells, per \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fdenver\u002Fibc-2024\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#new_1006.3.4.2\">1006.3.4.2\u003C\u002Fa> of the city building code. Five stories are subject to much more conditions, per \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fdenver\u002Fibc-2024\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.4\">1006.3.4(6)\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":609,"collection":614,"about":616,"acf:post":618,"wp:attachment":621,"curies":624},[610],{"href":611,"targetHints":612},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F1003",{"allow":613},[35],[615],{"href":471},[617],{"href":474},[619],{"embeddable":44,"href":620},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F202",[622],{"href":623},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1003",[625],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":627,"date":628,"date_gmt":628,"guid":629,"modified":628,"modified_gmt":628,"slug":631,"status":10,"type":446,"link":632,"title":633,"content":635,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":636,"class_list":637,"acf":639,"_links":644},1002,"2026-05-20T19:45:27",{"rendered":630},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=1002","culver-city","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fculver-city\u002F",{"rendered":634},"Culver City",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[638,446,454,26,27],"post-1002",{"place":634,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":640,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":641,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":642,"description":643,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},149,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In response to a request from the Livable Communities Initiative and Culver City Councilmember Albert Vera, on \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fculver-city.legistar.com\u002FLegislationDetail.aspx?ID=7646215&GUID=9D5FD30E-BDF2-43CE-8DB3-8FF29D8A2129&Options=&Search=&FullText=1\">Sep. 8, 2025\u003C\u002Fa>, the city council discussed amending the city’s local building code to allow single-stair buildings. The council directed staff to propose an ordinance allowing single-stair up to six stories subject to consultation with the fire department and a housing advisory committee. On \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fculver-city.legistar.com\u002FLegislationDetail.aspx?ID=7680869&GUID=CEBB0CF0-6781-4A6E-8B25-65E245B46543&Options=&Search=&FullText=1\">Sep. 29, 2025\u003C\u002Fa>, two days before all building codes in California were frozen for six years, city council entertained multiple versions before unanimously passing an ordinance revising the building code to permit single-stair up to six stories, subject to several conditions. One of those conditions is that five and six story single-stair buildings must have at least one elevator. The current code language can be found by searching for “1006.3.5” \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodelibrary.amlegal.com\u002Fcodes\u002Fculvercity\u002Flatest\u002Fculvercity_ca\u002F0-0-0-13669\">here\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":645,"collection":650,"about":652,"acf:post":654,"wp:attachment":657,"curies":660},[646],{"href":647,"targetHints":648},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F1002",{"allow":649},[35],[651],{"href":471},[653],{"href":474},[655],{"embeddable":44,"href":656},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F149",[658],{"href":659},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1002",[661],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":663,"date":664,"date_gmt":664,"guid":665,"modified":664,"modified_gmt":664,"slug":667,"status":10,"type":446,"link":668,"title":669,"content":671,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":672,"class_list":673,"acf":675,"_links":680},1001,"2026-05-20T19:44:48",{"rendered":666},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=1001","seattle","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fseattle\u002F",{"rendered":670},"Seattle",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[674,446,454,26,27],"post-1001",{"place":670,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":676,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":677,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":678,"description":679,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},215,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Seattle’s building code has permitted single-stair buildings up to six stories since 1977. The code requirements have changed over the years, originally allowing buildings of unlimited height, but the current height limit is six stories, and the current code language can be found \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fseattle\u002Fibc-2021\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.4\">here\u003C\u002Fa>. Likely hundreds of single-stair buildings taller than the IBC’s three-story height limit have been built throughout the city, with some of them documented \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Fmaps\u002Fd\u002Fu\u002F0\u002Fviewer?mid=19ujqtKlA-b3Ew1Qbna3TJIUrDbY8_yk&ll=47.634384326935724%2C-122.33447294999999&z=12\">here\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":681,"collection":686,"about":688,"acf:post":690,"wp:attachment":693,"curies":696},[682],{"href":683,"targetHints":684},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F1001",{"allow":685},[35],[687],{"href":471},[689],{"href":474},[691],{"embeddable":44,"href":692},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F215",[694],{"href":695},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1001",[697],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":699,"date":700,"date_gmt":700,"guid":701,"modified":700,"modified_gmt":700,"slug":703,"status":10,"type":446,"link":704,"title":705,"content":707,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":708,"class_list":709,"acf":711,"_links":715},1000,"2026-05-20T19:41:47",{"rendered":702},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=1000","ohio","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fohio\u002F",{"rendered":706},"Ohio",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[710,446,454,26,27],"post-1000",{"place":706,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":712,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":713,"description":714,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In April 2026, Sen. Michele Reynolds introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.legislature.ohio.gov\u002Flegislation\u002F136\u002Fsb428\">SB428\u003C\u002Fa>, a bill allowing fourplexes to use the International Residential Code and also requiring the Ohio Board of Building Standards to update the state building code to allow single-stair buildings up to six stories subject to the conditions enumerated in the bill text.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":716,"collection":721,"about":723,"acf:post":725,"wp:attachment":727,"curies":730},[717],{"href":718,"targetHints":719},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F1000",{"allow":720},[35],[722],{"href":471},[724],{"href":474},[726],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[728],{"href":729},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1000",[731],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":733,"date":734,"date_gmt":734,"guid":735,"modified":734,"modified_gmt":734,"slug":737,"status":10,"type":446,"link":738,"title":739,"content":741,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":742,"class_list":743,"acf":745,"_links":749},998,"2026-05-20T19:33:58",{"rendered":736},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=998","illinois","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fillinois\u002F",{"rendered":740},"Illinois",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[744,446,454,26,27],"post-998",{"place":740,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":746,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":747,"description":748,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>On Feb. 18, 2026, Gov. J.B. Pritzker \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fgov-pritzker-newsroom.prezly.com\u002Fgov-pritzker-proposes-eighth-balanced-budget\">announced\u003C\u002Fa> a package of housing reforms called BUILD during his State of the State address, which included requiring Illinois jurisdictions to adopt ordinances to allow single-stair buildings up to six stories subject to some conditions. That same day, Rep. Kam Buckner and Sen. Sara Feigenholtz introduced corresponding bills \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ilga.gov\u002FLegislation\u002FBillStatus?DocNum=5626&GAID=18&DocTypeID=HB&SessionID=114&GA=104\">HB5626\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ilga.gov\u002FLegislation\u002FBillStatus?DocNum=4061&GAID=18&DocTypeID=SB&SessionID=114&GA=104\">SB4061\u003C\u002Fa>, respectively, as legislative vehicles for the single-stair measure.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":750,"collection":755,"about":757,"acf:post":759,"wp:attachment":761,"curies":764},[751],{"href":752,"targetHints":753},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F998",{"allow":754},[35],[756],{"href":471},[758],{"href":474},[760],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[762],{"href":763},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=998",[765],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":767,"date":768,"date_gmt":768,"guid":769,"modified":771,"modified_gmt":771,"slug":772,"status":10,"type":446,"link":773,"title":774,"content":776,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":777,"class_list":778,"acf":780,"_links":784},997,"2026-05-20T19:33:02",{"rendered":770},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=997","2026-06-18T19:15:25","oklahoma","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Foklahoma\u002F",{"rendered":775},"Oklahoma",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[779,446,454,26,27],"post-997",{"place":775,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":781,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":782,"description":783,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In Jan. 2026, Rep. Mickey Dollens introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.oklegislature.gov\u002FBillInfo.aspx?Bill=hb3913&Session=2600\">HB 3913\u003C\u002Fa>, which would give local jurisdictions the option to adopt ordinances permitting single-stair buildings up to six stories subject to the conditions enumerated in the text of the bill. The bill was voted down in committee.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Feb. 2026, Rep. Suzanne Schreiber introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.oklegislature.gov\u002FBillInfo.aspx?Bill=hb4203&Session=2600\">HB 4203\u003C\u002Fa>, which would require the Oklahoma Uniform Building Code Commission to develop guidelines and revisions to the state building code to permit single-stair buildings up to four stories. The bill passed the state house on March 26, 2026, but died in the state senate.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Feb. 2026, local architect Sam Day submitted a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Foklahoma.gov\u002Fcontent\u002Fdam\u002Fok\u002Fen\u002Foubcc\u002Fdocuments\u002Fafcdtc2024\u002FAHCDTC%201.pdf\">proposal\u003C\u002Fa> to an Oklahoma affordable housing technical code committee that would allow four story single-stair buildings with the same conditions as currently allowed three story single-stair buildings. In May 2026, the Oklahoma Fire Sprinkler Association submitted a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Foklahoma.gov\u002Fcontent\u002Fdam\u002Fok\u002Fen\u002Foubcc\u002Fdocuments\u002Fafcdtc2024\u002FAHCDTC-9.pdf\">separate proposal\u003C\u002Fa> also allowing four story single-stair buildings by adopting E24-24.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":785,"collection":790,"about":792,"acf:post":794,"wp:attachment":796,"curies":799},[786],{"href":787,"targetHints":788},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F997",{"allow":789},[35],[791],{"href":471},[793],{"href":474},[795],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[797],{"href":798},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=997",[800],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":802,"date":803,"date_gmt":803,"guid":804,"modified":803,"modified_gmt":803,"slug":806,"status":10,"type":446,"link":807,"title":808,"content":810,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":811,"class_list":812,"acf":814,"_links":818},996,"2026-05-20T19:32:04",{"rendered":805},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=996","west-virginia","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fwest-virginia\u002F",{"rendered":809},"West Virginia",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[813,446,454,26,27],"post-996",{"place":809,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":815,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":816,"description":817,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Jan. 2026, Rep. Kayla Young introduced \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.wvlegislature.gov\u002FBill_Status\u002FBills_history.cfm?input=4737&year=2026&sessiontype=RS&btype=bill\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HB4737\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which would give local jurisdictions the option (which otherwise are only allowed to enforce the statewide building code unless they adopt an ordinance that is more restrictive) to adopt ordinances permitting single-stair buildings up to six stories subject to the conditions enumerated in the text of the bill. The bill did not receive further consideration.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":819,"collection":824,"about":826,"acf:post":828,"wp:attachment":830,"curies":833},[820],{"href":821,"targetHints":822},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F996",{"allow":823},[35],[825],{"href":471},[827],{"href":474},[829],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[831],{"href":832},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=996",[834],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":836,"date":837,"date_gmt":837,"guid":838,"modified":837,"modified_gmt":837,"slug":840,"status":10,"type":446,"link":841,"title":842,"content":844,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":845,"class_list":846,"acf":848,"_links":853},988,"2026-05-15T21:13:50",{"rendered":839},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=988","honolulu","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fhonolulu\u002F",{"rendered":843},"Honolulu",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[847,446,454,26,27],"post-988",{"place":843,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":849,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":850,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":851,"description":852,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},631,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The City and County of Honolulu (which encompasses the entire island of Oahu, home to two-thirds of the Hawaii's population) \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">had \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">already amended its own building code to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories, \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">but in 2023 watered down the provision to only allow single-stair up to three stories. \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Its code language \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">was\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> based on that of Seattle, and can be found \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodelibrary.amlegal.com\u002Fcodes\u002Fhonolulu\u002Flatest\u002Fhonolulu\u002F0-0-0-14009\">here\u003C\u002Fa> by searching for \"Section 1006.3.3.\"\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":854,"collection":859,"about":861,"acf:post":863,"wp:attachment":866,"curies":869},[855],{"href":856,"targetHints":857},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F988",{"allow":858},[35],[860],{"href":471},[862],{"href":474},[864],{"embeddable":44,"href":865},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F631",[867],{"href":868},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=988",[870],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":872,"date":873,"date_gmt":873,"guid":874,"modified":876,"modified_gmt":876,"slug":877,"status":10,"type":446,"link":878,"title":879,"content":881,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":882,"class_list":883,"acf":885,"_links":891},987,"2026-05-15T21:01:44",{"rendered":875},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=987","2026-05-20T19:59:27","portland-or","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fportland-or\u002F",{"rendered":880},"Portland (OR)",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[884,446,454,26,27],"post-987",{"place":886,"preferred_name_list":886,"category":566,"parent_state":887,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":888,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":889,"description":890,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},"Portland",208,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Oct. 2025, Portland \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.portland.gov\u002Fppd\u002Fcodes-rules-and-guides\u002Fbcg-25-10-single-stair-apartments\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">elected\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> to adopt the optional appendix in the 2025 Oregon Structural Specialty Code, allowing single-stair up to four stories, but added an additional condition beyond what the state code required, requiring buildings to meet additional requirements for fire department aerial access. Local architects have \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Ffinance-commerce.com\u002F2025\u002F11\u002Fportlands-single-staircase-code-hindered-by-fire-access-rule\u002F\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">criticized the amendments\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> as rendering the appendix unusable.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":892,"collection":897,"about":899,"acf:post":901,"wp:attachment":904,"curies":907},[893],{"href":894,"targetHints":895},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F987",{"allow":896},[35],[898],{"href":471},[900],{"href":474},[902],{"embeddable":44,"href":903},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F208",[905],{"href":906},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=987",[908],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":910,"date":911,"date_gmt":911,"guid":912,"modified":914,"modified_gmt":914,"slug":915,"status":10,"type":446,"link":916,"title":917,"content":919,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":920,"class_list":921,"acf":923,"_links":927},986,"2026-05-13T17:15:25",{"rendered":913},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=986","2026-05-15T21:02:58","idaho","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fidaho\u002F",{"rendered":918},"Idaho",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[922,446,454,26,27],"post-986",{"place":918,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":924,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":925,"description":926,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In April 2026, Gov. Brad Little signed into law \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegislature.idaho.gov\u002Fsessioninfo\u002F2026\u002Flegislation\u002FH0706\u002F\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">H0706\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which gives local governments in Idaho (which are not otherwise permitted to adopt codes that are less stringent than the state’s) the option to permit single-stair buildings up to six stories, subject to conditions set out in the bill text. The legislation goes into effect on July 1, 2026.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":928,"collection":933,"about":935,"acf:post":937,"wp:attachment":939,"curies":942},[929],{"href":930,"targetHints":931},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F986",{"allow":932},[35],[934],{"href":471},[936],{"href":474},[938],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[940],{"href":941},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=986",[943],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":945,"date":946,"date_gmt":946,"guid":947,"modified":949,"modified_gmt":949,"slug":950,"status":10,"type":446,"link":951,"title":952,"content":954,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":955,"class_list":956,"acf":958,"_links":962},969,"2026-02-26T18:59:12",{"rendered":948},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=969","2026-05-20T19:43:19","michigan","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fmichigan\u002F",{"rendered":953},"Michigan",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[957,446,454,26,27],"post-969",{"place":953,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":959,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":960,"description":961,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In Feb. 2026, two bills were introduced in the Michigan House of Representatives to change the state's building code to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories in height. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.legislature.mi.gov\u002FBills\u002FBill?ObjectName=2026-HB-5570\">HB 5570\u003C\u002Fa> would allow single-stair buildings up to four stories statewide, under a set of conditions laid out in the bill's text that resemble those of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F01\u002FJeff-Shapiros-E24-24-draft-floor-modification-complete.pdf\">E24-24-SHAPIRO-MC1\u003C\u002Fa>. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.legislature.mi.gov\u002FBills\u002FBill?ObjectName=2026-HB-5571\">HB 5571\u003C\u002Fa> would allow single-stair buildings up to six stories under a similar set of conditions, but only in those jurisdictions with a fire department with a class 1 or 2 ISO rating and access to aerial apparatus, among other requirements. HB 5571 would only go in effect if HB 5570 was also enacted.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":963,"collection":968,"about":970,"acf:post":972,"wp:attachment":974,"curies":977},[964],{"href":965,"targetHints":966},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F969",{"allow":967},[35],[969],{"href":471},[971],{"href":474},[973],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[975],{"href":976},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=969",[978],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":980,"date":981,"date_gmt":981,"guid":982,"modified":984,"modified_gmt":984,"slug":985,"status":10,"type":446,"link":986,"title":987,"content":989,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":990,"class_list":991,"acf":993,"_links":997},949,"2026-01-20T22:10:25",{"rendered":983},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=949","2026-05-20T19:38:26","wisconsin","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fwisconsin\u002F",{"rendered":988},"Wisconsin",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[992,446,454,26,27],"post-949",{"place":988,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":994,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":995,"description":996,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Dec. 2025, Rep. Mike Bare and Sens. Jamie Wall & Melissa Ratcliff, introduced \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdocs.legis.wisconsin.gov\u002F2025\u002Fproposals\u002Fab784\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">AB784\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdocs.legis.wisconsin.gov\u002F2025\u002Fproposals\u002Fsb771\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SB771\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, respectively, \u003C\u002Fspan>which would permit some building code reforms, especially taller single-stair apartment buildings. The legislation would create a multifamily housing innovation council charged with developing a guidebook and code change recommendations for taller single-stair apartment buildings (along with building code reforms more generally). \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Additionally, the bills would give jurisdictions the option of adopting ordinances permitting single-stair buildings up to six stories if they are in compliance with the council’s guidance. Neither bill got passed out of committee.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":998,"collection":1003,"about":1005,"acf:post":1007,"wp:attachment":1009,"curies":1012},[999],{"href":1000,"targetHints":1001},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F949",{"allow":1002},[35],[1004],{"href":471},[1006],{"href":474},[1008],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1010],{"href":1011},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=949",[1013],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1015,"date":1016,"date_gmt":1016,"guid":1017,"modified":1019,"modified_gmt":1019,"slug":1020,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1021,"title":1022,"content":1024,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1025,"class_list":1026,"acf":1028,"_links":1032},947,"2026-01-16T15:38:47",{"rendered":1018},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=947","2026-05-15T21:19:12","kentucky","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fkentucky\u002F",{"rendered":1023},"Kentucky",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1027,446,454,26,27],"post-947",{"place":1023,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1029,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1030,"description":1031,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Feb. 2025,\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> Rep. Nima Kulkarni introduced \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fapps.legislature.ky.gov\u002Frecord\u002F25RS\u002Fhb579.html\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HB579\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which would amend the state's building code to allow single-exit apartment buildings up to six stories, under conditions set out in the bill's text. \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">While the bill did not move forward in the legislature, it received further support from\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> a \u003C\u002Fspan> \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fapps.legislature.ky.gov\u002FCommitteeDocuments\u002F395\u002F37915\u002FNov%2024%202025%20Report%20and%20Recommendations%20of%20the%202025%20Kentucky%20Housing%20Task%20Force%20%28Final%29.pdf\">recommendation by the legislature's Kentucky Housing Task Force\u003C\u002Fa> in Nov. 2025 to allow taller single-stair buildings, along with a few other building code reforms.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Jan. 2026, Rep. Kulkarni reintroduced the measure as \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fapps.legislature.ky.gov\u002Frecord\u002F26RS\u002Fhb206.html\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HB206\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1033,"collection":1038,"about":1040,"acf:post":1042,"wp:attachment":1044,"curies":1047},[1034],{"href":1035,"targetHints":1036},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F947",{"allow":1037},[35],[1039],{"href":471},[1041],{"href":474},[1043],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1045],{"href":1046},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=947",[1048],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1050,"date":1051,"date_gmt":1051,"guid":1052,"modified":1054,"modified_gmt":1054,"slug":1055,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1056,"title":1057,"content":1059,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1060,"class_list":1061,"acf":1063,"_links":1067},944,"2026-01-10T20:13:09",{"rendered":1053},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=944","2026-05-20T19:39:53","missouri","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fmissouri\u002F",{"rendered":1058},"Missouri",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1062,446,454,26,27],"post-944",{"place":1058,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1064,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1065,"description":1066,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In Jan. 2026, Rep. Mike Jones introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fhouse.mo.gov\u002FBill.aspx?bill=HB2384&year=2026&code=R\">HB2384\u003C\u002Fa>, a larger bill restricting jurisdictions from imposing various building regulations. One provision of the bill required jurisdictions (which are otherwise responsible for building codes) to update their codes to allow single-stair buildings up to five stories, subject to the conditions enumerated in the bill text. The bill passed the state house in Feb. 2026 but the state senate removed the single-stair provision in April 2026. The bill was ultimately not called for a vote in the senate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1068,"collection":1073,"about":1075,"acf:post":1077,"wp:attachment":1079,"curies":1082},[1069],{"href":1070,"targetHints":1071},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F944",{"allow":1072},[35],[1074],{"href":471},[1076],{"href":474},[1078],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1080],{"href":1081},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=944",[1083],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1085,"date":1086,"date_gmt":1086,"guid":1087,"modified":1089,"modified_gmt":1089,"slug":1090,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1091,"title":1092,"content":1094,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1095,"class_list":1096,"acf":1098,"_links":1104},943,"2026-01-09T16:43:58",{"rendered":1088},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=943","2026-03-17T21:02:34","indiana","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Findiana\u002F",{"rendered":1093},"Indiana",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1097,446,454,26,27],"post-943",{"place":1093,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1099,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1100,"description":1102,"description_2":1103,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461,1101],"elevators","\u003Cp>On Jan. 8, 2026, Rep. Doug Miller introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Figa.in.gov\u002Flegislative\u002F2026\u002Fbills\u002Fhouse\u002F1001\u002Factions\">HB 1001\u003C\u002Fa>, a larger housing reform bill that would amend the state's building code to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to four and six stories under different sets of conditions outlined in the bill. The bill was largely gutted before finally passing and being signed into law by the governor, with the single-stair provision stripped out.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>On Jan. 8, 2026, Rep. Doug Miller introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Figa.in.gov\u002Flegislative\u002F2026\u002Fbills\u002Fhouse\u002F1001\u002Factions\">HB 1001\u003C\u002Fa>, a larger housing reform bill that would amend the state's building code to allow elevators that accommodate wheelchair accessibility in small apartment buildings (as opposed to the current requirement for that plus a 7-ft. stretcher). The text would apply only to buildings with no more than six stories and 24 apartments, which are at risk of having no elevator at all due to the high cost and spatial requirements of stretcher elevators. The bill was largely gutted before finally passing and being signed into law by the governor, with the elevator provision stripped out.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1105,"collection":1110,"about":1112,"acf:post":1114,"wp:attachment":1116,"curies":1119},[1106],{"href":1107,"targetHints":1108},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F943",{"allow":1109},[35],[1111],{"href":471},[1113],{"href":474},[1115],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1117],{"href":1118},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=943",[1120],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1122,"date":1123,"date_gmt":1123,"guid":1124,"modified":1126,"modified_gmt":1126,"slug":1127,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1128,"title":1129,"content":1131,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1132,"class_list":1133,"acf":1135,"_links":1140},934,"2025-11-17T16:08:50",{"rendered":1125},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=934","2026-01-05T20:55:04","maine","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fmaine\u002F",{"rendered":1130},"Maine",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1134,446,454,26,27],"post-934",{"place":1130,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1136,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1137,"description":1138,"description_2":1139,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461,1101],"\u003Cp>The Maine State Legislature \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegislature.maine.gov\u002Flegis\u002Fbills\u002FgetPDF.asp?paper=SP0569&item=3&snum=132\">passed a resolution\u003C\u002Fa> in June 2025, signed by Gov. Janet Mills, directing the Governor's office of Policy Innovation and the Future (GOPIF) to convene a working group to examine and recommend regulatory changes to encourage homebuilding in Maine.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>One of the topics that the working group looked at was taller single-stair multifamily buildings, where they came to a consensus to recommend that Maine follow the lead of New Hampshire and permit four-story buildings to be served by a single stairway under certain conditions. The Office of the State Fire Marshal and the Maine Office of Community Affairs brought a change to the Technical Codes and Standards Board, which was approved on Dec. 18, 2025, with details to be posted on Jan. 17, 2026.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The Maine State Legislature \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegislature.maine.gov\u002Flegis\u002Fbills\u002FgetPDF.asp?paper=SP0569&item=3&snum=132\">passed a resolution\u003C\u002Fa> in June 2025, signed by Gov. Janet Mills, directing the Governor's office of Policy Innovation and the Future (GOPIF) to convene a working group to examine and recommend regulatory changes to encourage homebuilding in Maine. The working group discussed a number of elevator-related issues, including cabin sizes, hoistway opening protection rules, and two-way visual communication and video monitoring, all of which were identified in the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fpublication\u002Felevators\">Center for Building's report\u003C\u002Fa> as cost drivers.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>On Dec. 31, 2025, GOPIF staff \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F01\u002FLD-1375-Working-Group-Report-FINAL-.pdf\">published the findings\u003C\u002Fa> of the working group. On the topic of elevators, members came to a consensus to recommend that the state legislature consider striking current provisions from the state building code that require elevator hoistway opening protection (referred to in the report as smoke curtains, after one of the code's most commonly used options), and also to not adopt the requirements in the building code and elevator standard for two-way visual communication and video monitoring. The group did not come to a consensus on allowing smaller elevators in smaller buildings that are currently at risk of not providing elevators due to their cost and space consumption.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1141,"collection":1146,"about":1148,"acf:post":1150,"wp:attachment":1152,"curies":1155},[1142],{"href":1143,"targetHints":1144},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F934",{"allow":1145},[35],[1147],{"href":471},[1149],{"href":474},[1151],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1153],{"href":1154},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=934",[1156],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1158,"date":1159,"date_gmt":1159,"guid":1160,"modified":1162,"modified_gmt":1162,"slug":1163,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1164,"title":1165,"content":1167,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1168,"class_list":1169,"acf":1171,"_links":1176},749,"2025-07-21T22:24:52",{"rendered":1161},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=749","2026-06-11T18:11:52","chattanooga","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fchattanooga\u002F",{"rendered":1166},"Chattanooga",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1170,446,454,26,27],"post-749",{"place":1166,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1172,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1173,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1174,"description":1175,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},212,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Following state enabling legislation signed into law in April 2024 (see Tennessee tracker for more details), the Chattanooga City Council in July 2025 voted to amend its building code to allow single-stair multifamily buildings up to five stories, with no more than four units per story. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flibrary.municode.com\u002Ftn\u002Fchattanooga\u002Fordinances\u002Fcode_of_ordinances?nodeId=1375040\">code text\u003C\u002Fa> became effective on Aug. 5, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1177,"collection":1182,"about":1184,"acf:post":1186,"wp:attachment":1189,"curies":1192},[1178],{"href":1179,"targetHints":1180},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F749",{"allow":1181},[35],[1183],{"href":471},[1185],{"href":474},[1187],{"embeddable":44,"href":1188},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F212",[1190],{"href":1191},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=749",[1193],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1195,"date":1196,"date_gmt":1196,"guid":1197,"modified":1199,"modified_gmt":1199,"slug":1200,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1201,"title":1202,"content":1204,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1205,"class_list":1206,"acf":1208,"_links":1214},683,"2025-04-22T10:46:25",{"rendered":1198},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=683","2026-05-08T20:43:41","washington-d-c-2","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fwashington-d-c-2\u002F",{"rendered":1203},"Washington, D.C.",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1207,446,454,26,27],"post-683",{"place":1203,"preferred_name_list":1209,"category":566,"parent_state":16,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1210,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1212,"description":1213,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},"District of Columbia",{"typology":568,"name_state":1203,"name_country":1211},"United States of America",[461],"\u003Cp>In April 2025, Councilmembers Brianne Nadeau, Brooke Pinto, and Robert White, Jr. introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flims.dccouncil.gov\u002FLegislation\u002FB26-0227\">B26-0227\u003C\u002Fa>, a bill that would direct Washington, D.C.'s Construction Codes Coordinating Board to modify the building code within two years to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to at least six stories, but which are not high-rises. In Jan. 2026, the Council's Committee of the Whole held testimony on the legislation, during which the Department of Buildings testified in favor of the bill. In Mar. 2026, the Committee of the Whole voted unanimously to move the legislation forward and in May 2026, the City Council passed the bill unanimously. It now goes to Mayor Bowser for approval and then Congress.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1215,"collection":1220,"about":1222,"acf:post":1224,"wp:attachment":1226,"curies":1229},[1216],{"href":1217,"targetHints":1218},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F683",{"allow":1219},[35],[1221],{"href":471},[1223],{"href":474},[1225],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1227],{"href":1228},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=683",[1230],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1232,"date":1233,"date_gmt":1233,"guid":1234,"modified":1236,"modified_gmt":1236,"slug":1237,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1238,"title":1239,"content":1241,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1242,"class_list":1243,"acf":1245,"_links":1249},672,"2025-04-01T20:14:24",{"rendered":1235},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=672","2026-05-20T19:28:01","santa-monica","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fsanta-monica\u002F",{"rendered":1240},"Santa Monica",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1244,446,454,26,27],"post-672",{"place":1240,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":640,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1246,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1247,"description":1248,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>On Mar. 25, 2025, Santa Monica city council members Jesse Zwick, Dan Hall, and Ellis Raskin \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsantamonicacityca.iqm2.com\u002FCitizens\u002FDetail_LegiFile.aspx?Frame=&MeetingID=1432&MediaPosition=&ID=7006&CssClass=\">requested\u003C\u002Fa> that Santa Monica's city manager, building official, and fire chief establish standards through an alternative means and methods request (AMMR) bulletin to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories in height, as part of the city's 2025 building code update. Separately, the request also asked them to modify the city's building code definition of a high-rise building (which \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.santamonica.gov\u002Fmedia\u002FHousing-Element-Update-2021-to-2029\u002FAdopted%20Appendix%20E%20Constraints%20Clean.pdf#page=42\">was then 55 feet\u003C\u002Fa>) to align with the definition in the state and national model code (75 feet) – a threshold at which requirements which add significant costs are triggered.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>On \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsantamonicacityca.iqm2.com\u002FCitizens\u002FDetail_Meeting.aspx?ID=1452\">Sep. 9, 2025\u003C\u002Fa>, city staff returned to city council with proposed guidance that would be used for the AMMR process. Any request would be subject to building and fire staff approval. The recommendation was approved by the city council that same day. You can find the current AMMR bulletin \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.santamonica.gov\u002Fmedia\u002FCDD\u002FBuilding%20&%20Safety\u002FInformation%20Bulletins\u002FIB%20-%202025-01%20-%20Single%20Exit%20Stairway%20for%20Multifamily%20Buildings%20Over%203%20Stories.pdf\">here\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>On \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsantamonicacityca.iqm2.com\u002FCitizens\u002FDetail_Meeting.aspx?ID=1468\">Sep. 30, 2025\u003C\u002Fa>, a day before all building codes in California were frozen for six years, the city council passed an updated city building code which included revisions to align the high-rise definition to what is in the state building code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1250,"collection":1255,"about":1257,"acf:post":1259,"wp:attachment":1261,"curies":1264},[1251],{"href":1252,"targetHints":1253},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F672",{"allow":1254},[35],[1256],{"href":471},[1258],{"href":474},[1260],{"embeddable":44,"href":656},[1262],{"href":1263},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=672",[1265],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1267,"date":1268,"date_gmt":1268,"guid":1269,"modified":1271,"modified_gmt":1271,"slug":1272,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1273,"title":1274,"content":1276,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1277,"class_list":1278,"acf":1280,"_links":1284},668,"2025-03-25T16:20:52",{"rendered":1270},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=668","2025-03-25T16:20:53","north-carolina","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fnorth-carolina\u002F",{"rendered":1275},"North Carolina",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1279,446,454,26,27],"post-668",{"place":1275,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1281,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1282,"description":1283,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>On Mar. 25, 2025, Sens. Julie Mayfield and Tim Moffitt (a Democrat and a Republican, respectively, both representing districts in the Asheville metropolitan area) introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ncleg.gov\u002FBillLookUp\u002F2025\u002FS492\">SB 492\u003C\u002Fa> to amend the North Carolina Building code to allow larger single-stair apartment buildings. The bill would create two pathways for compliance – one for buildings up to eight stories with two-hour fire-resistant construction and at most four units per story, and another for buildings up to three stories with one-hour fire-resistant construction and at most six units per story. Further conditions are enumerated in the bill text.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1285,"collection":1290,"about":1292,"acf:post":1294,"wp:attachment":1296,"curies":1299},[1286],{"href":1287,"targetHints":1288},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F668",{"allow":1289},[35],[1291],{"href":471},[1293],{"href":474},[1295],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1297],{"href":1298},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=668",[1300],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1302,"date":1303,"date_gmt":1303,"guid":1304,"modified":1306,"modified_gmt":1306,"slug":1307,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1308,"title":1309,"content":1311,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1312,"class_list":1313,"acf":1315,"_links":1319},654,"2025-03-14T15:02:07",{"rendered":1305},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=654","2026-06-11T17:35:07","texas","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Ftexas\u002F",{"rendered":1310},"Texas",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1314,446,454,26,27],"post-654",{"place":1310,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1316,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1317,"description":1318,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Rep. James Talarico introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcapitol.texas.gov\u002FBillLookup\u002FActions.aspx?LegSess=89R&Bill=HB5148\">HB 5148\u003C\u002Fa> in 2025, to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories across Texas. Building codes are adopted locally in Texas, so the House bill forbids municipalities from disallowing single-stair buildings that comply with details enumerated in the bill. The bill did not pass.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Separately, Sen. Nathan Johnson introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcapitol.texas.gov\u002FBillLookup\u002FHistory.aspx?LegSess=89R&Bill=SB2835\">SB 2835\u003C\u002Fa> in 2025, which allows (but does not require) municipalities to allow single-stair buildings up to six stories, under conditions enumerated in the bill text. The bill passed both houses and then passed \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fstatutes.capitol.texas.gov\u002F?tab=1&code=LG&chapter=LG.214&artSec=214.301\">into law\u003C\u002Fa> on June 20, taking effect on Sep. 1, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1320,"collection":1325,"about":1327,"acf:post":1329,"wp:attachment":1331,"curies":1334},[1321],{"href":1322,"targetHints":1323},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F654",{"allow":1324},[35],[1326],{"href":471},[1328],{"href":474},[1330],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1332],{"href":1333},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=654",[1335],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":849,"date":1337,"date_gmt":1337,"guid":1338,"modified":1340,"modified_gmt":1340,"slug":1341,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1342,"title":1343,"content":1345,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1346,"class_list":1347,"acf":1349,"_links":1353},"2025-03-07T19:05:13",{"rendered":1339},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=631","2026-05-15T21:11:21","hawaii","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fhawaii\u002F",{"rendered":1344},"Hawaii",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1348,446,454,26,27],"post-631",{"place":1344,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1350,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1351,"description":1352,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In March 2024, Rep. Luke Evslin and seven other representatives introduced \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.capitol.hawaii.gov\u002Fsession\u002Farchives\u002Fmeasure_indiv_Archives.aspx?billtype=HCR&billnumber=139&year=2024\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HCR139\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, which requests the State Building Code Council to amend the state code to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories. The bill died in committee.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In March 2025, Rep. Luke Evslin and seven other representatives reintroduced the measure as \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.capitol.hawaii.gov\u002Fsession\u002Farchives\u002Fmeasure_indiv_Archives.aspx?billtype=HCR&billnumber=66&year=2025\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HCR66\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>, which passed both houses of the state legislature in April 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1354,"collection":1358,"about":1360,"acf:post":1362,"wp:attachment":1364,"curies":1367},[1355],{"href":865,"targetHints":1356},{"allow":1357},[35],[1359],{"href":471},[1361],{"href":474},[1363],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1365],{"href":1366},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=631",[1368],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1370,"date":1371,"date_gmt":1371,"guid":1372,"modified":1374,"modified_gmt":1374,"slug":1375,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1376,"title":1377,"content":1379,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1380,"class_list":1381,"acf":1383,"_links":1388},628,"2025-03-05T21:32:14",{"rendered":1373},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=628","2026-05-13T17:13:13","los-angeles","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Flos-angeles\u002F",{"rendered":1378},"Los Angeles",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1382,446,454,26,27],"post-628",{"place":1378,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":640,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1384,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1385,"description":1386,"description_2":1387,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Council members Nithya Rathman, Katy Yaroslavsky, and Bob Blumenfeld introduced a motion (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcityclerk.lacity.org\u002Flacityclerkconnect\u002Findex.cfm?fa=ccfi.viewrecord&cfnumber=25-0247\">Council File 25-0247\u003C\u002Fa>) in the Los Angeles City Council in 2025 instructing the Department of Building and Safety to present modifications to the city's building codes to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories, and instructing the Department of City Planning to report back on jurisdictions like New York City and Seattle that already allow single-stair buildings above three stories, both within 90 days. \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Facing a deadline of Oct. 1, 2025 before the state “froze” building codes statewide, the sponsors withdrew their motion after city staff proposed unworkable requirements and \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fhousingactioncoalition.org\u002Fnews\u002Fircweygg75vy9mcq7k9do8f0jm2ktn\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">amid opposition\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from the firefighters’ union and city attorney.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Test\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1389,"collection":1394,"about":1396,"acf:post":1398,"wp:attachment":1400,"curies":1403},[1390],{"href":1391,"targetHints":1392},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F628",{"allow":1393},[35],[1395],{"href":471},[1397],{"href":474},[1399],{"embeddable":44,"href":656},[1401],{"href":1402},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=628",[1404],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1406,"date":1407,"date_gmt":1407,"guid":1408,"modified":1410,"modified_gmt":1410,"slug":1411,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1412,"title":1413,"content":1415,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1416,"class_list":1417,"acf":1419,"_links":1423},620,"2025-03-04T21:45:27",{"rendered":1409},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=620","2026-06-11T18:24:03","memphis","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fmemphis\u002F",{"rendered":1414},"Memphis",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1418,446,454,26,27],"post-620",{"place":1414,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1172,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1420,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1421,"description":1422,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>John Zeanah, the director of the Division of Planning and Development for Memphis and Shelby County, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.linkedin.com\u002Fposts\u002Fjohnzeanah_oureraofyes-memphisforward-affordablehousing-activity-7300518031485485058-yr9c\u002F?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_desktop&rcm=ACoAAA7qN8EBVUILzQsL_1LE2UUYBkyLe0oqCC0\">announced\u003C\u002Fa> that beginning on Apr. 1, 2025, Memphis and Shelby County will allow multifamily buildings up to six stories and 24 units to be built with a single stair. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.shelbycountytn.gov\u002FDocumentCenter\u002FView\u002F39431\u002F2021-IBC-Amendments---Final#page=23\">code text\u003C\u002Fa> will apply to the city of Memphis, unincorporated Shelby County, and four of six suburban municipalities of Shelby County.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1424,"collection":1429,"about":1431,"acf:post":1433,"wp:attachment":1435,"curies":1438},[1425],{"href":1426,"targetHints":1427},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F620",{"allow":1428},[35],[1430],{"href":471},[1432],{"href":474},[1434],{"embeddable":44,"href":1188},[1436],{"href":1437},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=620",[1439],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1441,"date":1442,"date_gmt":1442,"guid":1443,"modified":1445,"modified_gmt":1445,"slug":1446,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1447,"title":1448,"content":1450,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1451,"class_list":1452,"acf":1454,"_links":1459},618,"2025-02-26T03:42:22",{"rendered":1444},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=618","2026-05-20T19:30:59","vancouver","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fvancouver\u002F",{"rendered":1449},"Vancouver",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1453,446,454,26,27],"post-618",{"place":1449,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1455,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1456,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1457,"description":1458,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},217,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In Feb. 2025, Vancouver's chief building official \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcouncil.vancouver.ca\u002F20250226\u002Fdocuments\u002Fpspc1.pdf\">recommended\u003C\u002Fa> that Vancouver City Council decline to adopt British Columbia's single-stair provisions, which he considered \"not well suited to the Vancouver context.\" He instead recommended that the Council direct him to consult with the city's fire chief to recommend their own language for more space-efficient egress in small multifamily buildings. The report suggested that potential alternatives might include scissor stairs or a single exterior stairway.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Dec. 2025, the Vancouver Building By-Law was updated to allow single stair buildings up to six stories. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fvancouver.ca\u002Fnews-calendar\u002Fnew-vancouver-building-rules-dec-2025.aspx\">code section\u003C\u002Fa>, which took effect in Jan. 2026, is a modified version of the British Columbia conditions that require an exterior stairway to be provided to eliminate the risk of smoke accumulation in the stairway.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1460,"collection":1465,"about":1467,"acf:post":1469,"wp:attachment":1472,"curies":1475},[1461],{"href":1462,"targetHints":1463},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F618",{"allow":1464},[35],[1466],{"href":471},[1468],{"href":474},[1470],{"embeddable":44,"href":1471},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F217",[1473],{"href":1474},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=618",[1476],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1478,"date":1479,"date_gmt":1479,"guid":1480,"modified":1482,"modified_gmt":1482,"slug":1483,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1484,"title":1485,"content":1487,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1488,"class_list":1489,"acf":1491,"_links":1495},567,"2025-02-11T16:03:45",{"rendered":1481},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=567","2026-05-15T21:17:32","new-jersey","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fnew-jersey\u002F",{"rendered":1486},"New Jersey",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1490,446,454,26,27],"post-567",{"place":1486,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1492,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1493,"description":1494,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":568,"name_state":16,"name_country":570},[461],"\u003Cp>Asm. Clinton Calabrese introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fnjleg.state.nj.us\u002Fbill-search\u002F2024\u002FA4972\">A4972\u003C\u002Fa> in the General Assembly in Oct. 2024, which would allow municipalities to amend the New Jersey State Uniform Construction Code to allow single-stair apartment buildings of no more than six stories (with nonhazardous commercial use allowed on the ground floor). The bill also directs the Commissioner of Community Affairs to publish a model ordinance for the purpose. \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Sen. Raj Mukherji introduced a similar bill, \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.njleg.state.nj.us\u002Fbill-search\u002F2024\u002FS4642\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">S4642\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, in June 2025. A4972\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> was reported out of the Assembly Housing Committee favorably on Feb. 10, 2025 \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">but both it and S4642 did not make any further progress\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Both sponsors reintroduced their bills, \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.njleg.state.nj.us\u002Fbill-search\u002F2026\u002FA1536\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A1536\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.njleg.state.nj.us\u002Fbill-search\u002F2026\u002FS2968\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">S2968\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, in Jan. 2026.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1496,"collection":1501,"about":1503,"acf:post":1505,"wp:attachment":1507,"curies":1510},[1497],{"href":1498,"targetHints":1499},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F567",{"allow":1500},[35],[1502],{"href":471},[1504],{"href":474},[1506],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1508],{"href":1509},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=567",[1511],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1513,"date":1514,"date_gmt":1514,"guid":1515,"modified":1517,"modified_gmt":1517,"slug":1518,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1519,"title":1520,"content":1522,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1523,"class_list":1524,"acf":1526,"_links":1530},563,"2025-02-04T23:00:24",{"rendered":1516},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=563","2026-06-18T19:38:28","new-hampshire","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fnew-hampshire\u002F",{"rendered":1521},"New Hampshire",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1525,446,454,26,27],"post-563",{"place":1521,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1527,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1528,"description":1529,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegiscan.com\u002FNH\u002Fbill\u002FSB282\u002F2025\">SB 282\u003C\u002Fa> was introduced in the 2025 legislative session, sponsored by Sen. Keith Murphy, Sen. Howard Pearl, Sen. Dan Innis, Rep. Jason Osborne, and Rep. Joe Alexander Jr. The bill originally sought to amend the state's building code to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to four or six stories, depending on which specific set of conditions laid out in the legislative text the building meets. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fgc.nh.gov\u002Fbill_status\u002Fpdf.aspx?id=16987&q=billVersion\">final version\u003C\u002Fa> of the bill allows single-stair residential buildings up to four stories, under conditions to be established by the State Building Code Review Board, and was signed into law by Gov. Kelly Ayotte on July 15, 2025. The board then \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F08\u002FBD-21-25-25-R1.pdf\">submitted a successful code change proposal\u003C\u002Fa> to raise the single-exit height limit for R-2 occupancies in Table 1006.3.4(1) to four stories, under the same conditions previously allows for those up to three stories. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fnew_hampshire\u002Fibc-2021\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.4\">code text\u003C\u002Fa> took effect on Oct. 15, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1531,"collection":1536,"about":1538,"acf:post":1540,"wp:attachment":1542,"curies":1545},[1532],{"href":1533,"targetHints":1534},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F563",{"allow":1535},[35],[1537],{"href":471},[1539],{"href":474},[1541],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1543],{"href":1544},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=563",[1546],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1548,"date":1549,"date_gmt":1549,"guid":1550,"modified":1552,"modified_gmt":1552,"slug":1553,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1554,"title":1555,"content":1557,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1558,"class_list":1559,"acf":1561,"_links":1565},521,"2025-01-31T18:21:09",{"rendered":1551},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=521","2026-02-13T16:27:32","massachusetts","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fmassachusetts\u002F",{"rendered":1556},"Massachusetts",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1560,446,454,26,27],"post-521",{"place":1556,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1562,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1563,"description":1564,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Sen. John Cronin and Rep. Meg Kilcoyne introduced legislation (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fmalegislature.gov\u002FBills\u002F194\u002FSD804\">SD 804\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fmalegislature.gov\u002FBills\u002F194\u002FHD1392\">HD 1392\u003C\u002Fa>, respectively) in the Massachusetts General Court's 2025 session to allocate $250,000 to a commission that would study and produce a building code amendment to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories in the state. On Feb. 12, 2026, Gov. Maura Healey preempted the legislation by issuing \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.mass.gov\u002Fdoc\u002Feo-651\u002Fdownload\">Executive Order No. 651\u003C\u002Fa>, which establishes an unfunded single-stair technical advisory group to study the issue of single-stair buildings above the state building code's current three-story height limit, and put forward recommendations within a year. The Center for Building is one of at least 17 members of the technical advisory group.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1566,"collection":1571,"about":1573,"acf:post":1575,"wp:attachment":1577,"curies":1580},[1567],{"href":1568,"targetHints":1569},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F521",{"allow":1570},[35],[1572],{"href":471},[1574],{"href":474},[1576],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1578],{"href":1579},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=521",[1581],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1583,"date":1584,"date_gmt":1584,"guid":1585,"modified":1587,"modified_gmt":1587,"slug":1588,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1589,"title":1590,"content":1592,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1593,"class_list":1594,"acf":1596,"_links":1601},469,"2025-01-27T22:01:00",{"rendered":1586},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=469","2026-05-20T19:30:02","baltimore","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fbaltimore\u002F",{"rendered":1591},"Baltimore",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1595,446,454,26,27],"post-469",{"place":1591,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1597,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1598,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1599,"description":1600,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},461,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>On Nov. 3, 2025, Baltimore Mayor Brandon Scott signed into law \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fbaltimore.legistar.com\u002FLegislationDetail.aspx?ID=7397284&GUID=AC03F466-9793-4FF1-B00E-B64820020933\">Ordinance 25-061\u003C\u002Fa>, a bill introduced by Councilman Ryan Dorsey to amend the city's building code to allow single-exit apartment buildings up to six stories in height, with conditions laid out in the bill. The bill was part of a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fbaltimorefishbowl.com\u002Fstories\u002Fbaltimore-councilmembers-introduce-bills-to-change-housing-codes-allow-more-multi-family-units\u002F\">broader package\u003C\u002Fa> of housing reforms championed by the mayor and councilman, including bills to eliminate parking requirements and allow the construction of (or subdivision of existing homes into) four-unit dwellings citywide. The bill was supported by Baltimoreans for People-Oriented Places, and Julian Frost in particular. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fbaltimore\u002Fibc-2021\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.4\">code change\u003C\u002Fa> went into effect on Dec. 3, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1602,"collection":1607,"about":1609,"acf:post":1611,"wp:attachment":1614,"curies":1617},[1603],{"href":1604,"targetHints":1605},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F469",{"allow":1606},[35],[1608],{"href":471},[1610],{"href":474},[1612],{"embeddable":44,"href":1613},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F461",[1615],{"href":1616},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=469",[1618],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":458,"date":1620,"date_gmt":1620,"guid":1621,"modified":1623,"modified_gmt":1623,"slug":1624,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1625,"title":1626,"content":1627,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1628,"class_list":1629,"acf":1631,"_links":1638},"2025-01-27T21:09:52",{"rendered":1622},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=465","2026-06-01T18:25:06","united-states","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Funited-states\u002F",{"rendered":570},{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[1630,446,454,26,27],"post-465",{"place":570,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":1632,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1633,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1635,"description":1636,"description_2":1637,"description_3":16},"country-label",{"typology":1634,"name_state":16,"name_country":570},"country",[461,1101],"\u003Cp>The National Fire Protection Association’s Life Safety Code (NFPA 101) allowed single-stair multifamily buildings of unlimited height from 1970 through 1988. Since 1991, NFPA 101 permits four-story single-stair buildings subject to the conditions laid out at \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fnfpa\u002Fnfpa-101-2024\u002Fchapter\u002F30\u002Fnew-apartment-buildings#30.2.4.6\">30.2.4.6\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>After a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002Feducation%20and%20research\u002Fbuilding%20and%20life%20safety\u002Fthe%20single%20exit%20stair%20debate\">2024 symposium\u003C\u002Fa> and sustained national interest, NFPA \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002Feducation-and-research\u002Fresearch\u002Ffire-protection-research-foundation\u002Fprojects-and-reports\u002Fanalysis-of-the-impact-of-single-exits-in-mid-rise-apartment-buildings\">announced\u003C\u002Fa> it would sponsor a technical analysis of single-stair buildings from the association’s Fire Protection Research Foundation. NFPA chose the WJE\u002FCrux team behind the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.dli.mn.gov\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002Fpdf\u002FMinnesota_Single-Exit_Stairway_Apartment_report.pdf\">Minnesota single-stair study\u003C\u002Fa> as its consultants.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In 2024, the Center for Building introduced a proposal, numbered \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F01\u002FE24-24-CAH1.pdf\">E24-24\u003C\u002Fa>, at the International Code Council (or ICC, the code development organization that writes the so-called \"I-Codes\" which form the model for adopted buildings codes in the United States and a few small countries) to change the International Building Code (IBC) to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories in height.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>The proposal was \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdpaccess.com\u002Fvideos\u002F6581\u002F\">heard by\u003C\u002Fa> the IBC Egress Code Committee at the ICC's Committee Action Hearings #1 in April 2024 in Orlando, and was unanimously disapproved. Ahead of the ICC's Committee Action Hearings #2 in Orlando in October, the Center for Building worked with stakeholders to arrive at a compromise proposal allowing single-stair apartment buildings up to four stories with a maximum of 4,000 net sq. ft. per floor. \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F01\u002FJeff-Shapiros-E24-24-draft-floor-modification-complete.pdf\">The modification\u003C\u002Fa>, put forward by longtime ICC participant Jeff Shapiro, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdpaccess.com\u002Fvideos\u002F7722\u002F\">was heard\u003C\u002Fa> and approved by the Egress Committee with a vote of 13 in favor to one against.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>After going through a period of public comment in 2025 and 2026, ICC's government membership \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002F2026-OGCV-Preliminary-Results.pdf\">voted to approve\u003C\u002Fa> E24-24 in May 2026. It will be published as part of the 2027 IBC, which cities and states will then consider for adoption into law in subsequent years.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In 2025, the Center for Building submitted several proposals to the International Code Council (or ICC, the code development organization that writes the so-called \"I-Codes\" which form the model for adopted buildings codes in the United States and a few small countries) to modernize the elevator requirements in the International Building Code (IBC):\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cul>\r\n\t\u003Cli>G154-25 (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F12067\u002F35637\u002Fpreview\u002F\">Part I\u003C\u002Fa> & \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F12244\u002F36093\u002Fpreview\u002F\">Part II\u003C\u002Fa>): Allows the installation of elevators that are compliant with ISO 8100\u002FEN81\u003C\u002Fli>\r\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F11766\u002F35601\u002Fpreview\u002F\">G155-25\u003C\u002Fa>: Removes the elevator hoistway protection requirement for buildings up to 120 ft. high\u003C\u002Fli>\r\n\t\u003Cli>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F11108\u002F35634\u002Fpreview\u002F\">G158-25\u003C\u002Fa>: Removes the requirement for elevators in smaller residential buildings up to six stories, if they are voluntarily provided, to accommodate an 84-in. stretcher\u003C\u002Fli>\r\n\u003C\u002Ful>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>The proposals were heard by the IBC General and Structural code committees at the ICC's Committee Action Hearings in May 2025 in Orlando. G154-25 Part 1 and G155-25 were voted down 12-1, the other two proposals were voted down unanimously. The Center for Building plans to rework these proposals for consideration as part of the IBC 2030 process.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1639,"collection":1643,"about":1645,"wp:attachment":1647,"curies":1650},[1640],{"href":477,"targetHints":1641},{"allow":1642},[35],[1644],{"href":471},[1646],{"href":474},[1648],{"href":1649},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=465",[1651],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1597,"date":1653,"date_gmt":1653,"guid":1654,"modified":1656,"modified_gmt":1656,"slug":1657,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1658,"title":1659,"content":1661,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1662,"class_list":1663,"acf":1665,"_links":1669},"2025-01-24T23:26:19",{"rendered":1655},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=461","2026-05-15T21:08:54","maryland","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fmaryland\u002F",{"rendered":1660},"Maryland",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1664,446,454,26,27],"post-461",{"place":1660,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1666,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1667,"description":1668,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Jan. 2024, Sen. Ron Watson introduced \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fmgaleg.maryland.gov\u002Fmgawebsite\u002FLegislation\u002FDetails\u002FSB0352?ys=2024RS\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SB 352\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, directing the Department of Labor to study and make recommendations for single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories in height. The bill was ultimately withdrawn in March 2024.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Jan. 2025, Del. Vaughn Stewart and Sen. Jeff Waldstreicher introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fmgaleg.maryland.gov\u002Fmgawebsite\u002FLegislation\u002FDetails\u002Fhb0489?ys=2025RS\">HB 489\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fmgaleg.maryland.gov\u002Fmgawebsite\u002FLegislation\u002FDetails\u002FSB0436?ys=2025RS\">SB 436\u003C\u002Fa>, with similar language as the bill from the prior year. The bills \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fmgaleg.maryland.gov\u002F2025RS\u002Fbills\u002Fhb\u002Fhb0489t.pdf\">require the department\u003C\u002Fa> to report its findings by Dec. 1, 2026, and passed both chambers in April 2025. The bills were signed into law by Gov. Wes Moore on May 13, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1670,"collection":1674,"about":1676,"acf:post":1678,"wp:attachment":1680,"curies":1683},[1671],{"href":1613,"targetHints":1672},{"allow":1673},[35],[1675],{"href":471},[1677],{"href":474},[1679],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1681],{"href":1682},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=461",[1684],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1686,"date":1687,"date_gmt":1687,"guid":1688,"modified":1690,"modified_gmt":1690,"slug":1691,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1692,"title":1693,"content":1695,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1696,"class_list":1697,"acf":1699,"_links":1703},457,"2025-01-24T17:53:41",{"rendered":1689},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=457","2026-06-11T18:18:31","jackson","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fjackson\u002F",{"rendered":1694},"Jackson",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1698,446,454,26,27],"post-457",{"place":1694,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1172,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1700,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1701,"description":1702,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Following the passage of state legislation allowing cities to permit single-stair buildings up to six stories (see Tennessee tracker for more details), Jackson modified its building code to allow single-stair multifamily buildings of that height, with \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flibrary.municode.com\u002Ftn\u002Fjackson\u002Fordinances\u002Fcode_of_ordinances?nodeId=1355289\">conditions similar to those of Seattle's code\u003C\u002Fa>. The ordinance amending the code took effect in Jan. 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1704,"collection":1709,"about":1711,"acf:post":1713,"wp:attachment":1715,"curies":1718},[1705],{"href":1706,"targetHints":1707},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F457",{"allow":1708},[35],[1710],{"href":471},[1712],{"href":474},[1714],{"embeddable":44,"href":1188},[1716],{"href":1717},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=457",[1719],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1721,"date":1722,"date_gmt":1722,"guid":1723,"modified":1725,"modified_gmt":1725,"slug":1726,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1727,"title":1728,"content":1730,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1731,"class_list":1732,"acf":1734,"_links":1738},392,"2025-01-18T14:35:19",{"rendered":1724},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=392","2026-06-12T17:27:29","montana","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fmontana\u002F",{"rendered":1729},"Montana",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1733,446,454,26,27],"post-392",{"place":1729,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":16,"state_country_belong":1735,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1736,"description":1737,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":1634,"name_state":16,"name_country":570},[461],"\u003Cp>Sen. Daniel Zolnikov introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fbills.legmt.gov\u002F#\u002Flaws\u002Fbill\u002F2\u002FLC0412?open_tab=sum\">SB 213\u003C\u002Fa> on Jan. 24, 2025, which would direct the Montana Department of Labor & Industry to adopt rules permitting the construction of single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories under a certain set of conditions laid out in the legislation. The bill passed the state legislature and was signed \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fmca.legmt.gov\u002Fbills\u002Fmca\u002Ftitle_0500\u002Fchapter_0600\u002Fpart_0020\u002Fsection_0030\u002F0500-0600-0020-0030.html\">into law\u003C\u002Fa> by Gov. Greg Gianforte in May 2025, and took effect on Oct. 1, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1739,"collection":1744,"about":1746,"wp:attachment":1748,"curies":1751},[1740],{"href":1741,"targetHints":1742},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F392",{"allow":1743},[35],[1745],{"href":471},[1747],{"href":474},[1749],{"href":1750},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=392",[1752],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1455,"date":1754,"date_gmt":1754,"guid":1755,"modified":1757,"modified_gmt":1757,"slug":1758,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1759,"title":1760,"content":1762,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1763,"class_list":1764,"acf":1766,"_links":1771},"2024-12-16T13:35:52",{"rendered":1756},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=217","2025-01-18T13:27:51","british-columbia-2","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fbritish-columbia-2\u002F",{"rendered":1761},"British Columbia",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1765,446,454,26,27],"post-217",{"place":1761,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":1767,"state_country_belong":1768,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1769,"description":1770,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},201,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In June 2024, Jensen Hughes \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww2.gov.bc.ca\u002Fassets\u002Fgov\u002Ffarming-natural-resources-and-industry\u002Fconstruction-industry\u002Fbuilding-codes-and-standards\u002Freports\u002Freport_for_single_egress_stair_designs.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">released a report\u003C\u002Fa> prepared for the British Columbia Ministry of Housing on single-stair apartment buildings. A week later, the province's housing minister \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.theglobeandmail.com\u002Fcanada\u002Fbritish-columbia\u002Farticle-british-columbia-looks-to-change-building-code-to-develop-single-stair\u002F\">told \u003Cem>The Globe and Mail\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fa> that he expected legislation to be introduced in the fall to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories, with up to four units per floor. On Aug. 29, the province \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fnews.gov.bc.ca\u002Freleases\u002F2024HOUS0158-001410\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">announced that the code has been updated\u003C\u002Fa>, with the exact text \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Faibc.ca\u002F2024\u002F09\u002Fbc-building-code-update-enabling-single-exit-stair-buildings-2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">published online\u003C\u002Fa> a few days later.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1772,"collection":1776,"about":1778,"acf:post":1780,"wp:attachment":1783,"curies":1786},[1773],{"href":1471,"targetHints":1774},{"allow":1775},[35],[1777],{"href":471},[1779],{"href":474},[1781],{"embeddable":44,"href":1782},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F201",[1784],{"href":1785},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=217",[1787],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1789,"date":1790,"date_gmt":1790,"guid":1791,"modified":1793,"modified_gmt":1793,"slug":1794,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1795,"title":1796,"content":1798,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1799,"class_list":1800,"acf":1802,"_links":1806},216,"2024-12-16T13:25:40",{"rendered":1792},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=216","2025-02-25T22:07:15","wyoming","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fwyoming\u002F",{"rendered":1797},"Wyoming",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1801,446,454,26,27],"post-216",{"place":1797,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1803,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1804,"description":1805,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>A \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwyoleg.gov\u002FInterimCommittee\u002F2024\u002FS37-2024101525LSO-0250v0.4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">draft bill\u003C\u002Fa> authored by Rep. Mike Yin in the Wyoming House of Representatives, considered on \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.youtube.com\u002Flive\u002FZB-6MNM8YS8?si=1ablJc61tNS2gfL_&t=11024\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Oct. 15, 2024\u003C\u002Fa> by the state’s Regulatory Reduction Task Force, would require at most one stairway in apartment buildings up to six stories in building codes by default, with a local opt-out option. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwyoleg.gov\u002FLegislation\u002F2025\u002FHB0088\">The bill\u003C\u002Fa> was introduced in Jan. 2025, with an effective date of July 1, 2025, but was ultimately not considered for introduction.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1807,"collection":1812,"about":1814,"acf:post":1816,"wp:attachment":1818,"curies":1821},[1808],{"href":1809,"targetHints":1810},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F216",{"allow":1811},[35],[1813],{"href":471},[1815],{"href":474},[1817],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1819],{"href":1820},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=216",[1822],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":676,"date":1824,"date_gmt":1824,"guid":1825,"modified":1827,"modified_gmt":1827,"slug":1828,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1829,"title":1830,"content":1832,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1833,"class_list":1834,"acf":1836,"_links":1841},"2024-12-16T13:21:50",{"rendered":1826},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=215","2026-05-22T18:26:29","washington","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fwashington\u002F",{"rendered":1831},"Washington",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1835,446,454,26,27],"post-215",{"place":1831,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1837,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1838,"description":1839,"description_2":1840,"description_3":16},{"typology":1634,"name_state":16,"name_country":570},[461,1101],"\u003Cp>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fapp.leg.wa.gov\u002Fbillsummary?BillNumber=5491&Year=2023\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">SB 5491\u003C\u002Fa>, sponsored by Sens. Salomon, Shewmake, Frame, Liias, and Stanford, directs the state's Building Code Council to draw up reforms to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories tall, with recommendations due in time for the 2024 International Building Code update, and adoption into code by July 1, 2026. The bill was signed into law by Gov. Jay Inslee in May 2023, and had the support of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.sightline.org\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Sightline Institute\u003C\u002Fa> and Center for Building board member and Seattle architect Mike Eliason, of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.larchlab.com\u002F\">Larch Lab\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Aug. 2024, Seattle Building Official Ardel Jala, on behalf of the Washington Association of Building Officials (WABO), submitted a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsbcc.wa.gov\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002F2025-03\u002F24-SEP-001.pdf\">code change proposal\u003C\u002Fa> to fulfill the legislature's request, allowing single-stair buildings up to six stories under slightly stricter conditions than Seattle itself allows. The proposal places the code section in an optional appendix, which could be adopted or ignored at a jurisdiction's discretion.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In March 2026, the state’s Building Code Council approved a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsbcc.wa.gov\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002F2026-03\u002FSingleExitAppendix_BFRWFinal_02132026cleaned.pdf\">modified version of the WABO proposal\u003C\u002Fa> for inclusion in the state’s next code cycle update that will be effective on May 3, 2027. The appendix is intended to be adopted by cities with professional fire departments.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Sen. Jesse Salomon and Rep. Davina Duerr, along with a number of cosponsors, introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fapp.leg.wa.gov\u002Fbillsummary?BillNumber=5156&Year=2025\">SB 5156\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fapp.leg.wa.gov\u002Fbillsummary?BillNumber=1183&Year=2025&Initiative=False\">HB 1183\u003C\u002Fa> in the 2025-2026 legislative session. The bills would allow the use of smaller elevators for apartment buildings with up to six stories and 24 dwelling units, which are currently at high risk of not having elevators at all due to their required size and cost. In addition, the bills would direct the Washington State Department of Labor and Industries to allow elevators to comply with the global ISO and related technical standards in use in most of the world, in addition to the ASME standards currently in use in the United States and Canada, with the goal of improving competition in the industry and allowing Washington State developers and building owners to access the global market for components.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In 2025, the bill passed the State Senate before stalling in the House \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.theurbanist.org\u002F2025\u002F04\u002F03\u002Felevator-reform-falls-short\u002F\">due to opposition\u003C\u002Fa> from firefighters (over the smaller allowed cab sizes for smaller buildings) and the union representing elevator mechanics (over the option for elevators to adhere to global technical standards).\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In 2026, the bill was reworked to maintain the allowance for smaller cab sizes (eliminating the requirement to accommodate a stretcher) for smaller buildings. The bill also ordered the creation of a technical advisory group to reevaluate the state building code's requirements for hoistway opening protection and two-way visual communications devices. A softer statement of intent in support of national and global harmonization of the technical standard was \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fapp.leg.wa.gov\u002Fcommitteeschedules\u002FHome\u002FDocument\u002F297773#toolbar=0&navpanes=0\">removed by the chair of the House Housing Committee\u003C\u002Fa> after \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fbsky.app\u002Fprofile\u002Ftypewriteralley.bsky.social\u002Fpost\u002F3mf5v7w5te22d\">opposition from the elevator industry\u003C\u002Fa>. In this form, the bill passed both houses and on March 23, 2026, was signed by Gov. Jay Inslee with an effective date of June 11, 2026. The technical advisory group will be convened as part of the next (not current) code update cycle.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1842,"collection":1846,"about":1848,"acf:post":1850,"wp:attachment":1852,"curies":1855},[1843],{"href":692,"targetHints":1844},{"allow":1845},[35],[1847],{"href":471},[1849],{"href":474},[1851],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1853],{"href":1854},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=215",[1856],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1858,"date":1859,"date_gmt":1859,"guid":1860,"modified":1862,"modified_gmt":1862,"slug":1863,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1864,"title":1865,"content":1867,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1868,"class_list":1869,"acf":1871,"_links":1876},214,"2024-12-16T13:18:47",{"rendered":1861},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=214","2026-05-22T18:25:27","virginia","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fvirginia\u002F",{"rendered":1866},"Virginia",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1870,446,454,26,27],"post-214",{"place":1866,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1872,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1873,"description":1874,"description_2":1875,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461,1101],"\u003Cp>As part of Virginia’s code cycle update process in 2021-22, Charlottesville Planning Commission member Lyle Solla-Yates submitted a code proposal (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fva.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F944\u002F1676\u002Fpreview\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-saferedirecturl=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?q=https:\u002F\u002Fva.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F944\u002F1676\u002Fpreview\u002F&source=gmail&ust=1778970152251000&usg=AOvVaw2CIV2eGJQXMA-DT5V_BdrB\">B1006.3.4-21\u003C\u002Fa>) to permit single-stair up to five stories. The code proposal was opposed by the fire service and was voted down by the Codes and Standards Committee of the state’s Board of Housing and Community Development.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Sen. Schuyler VanValkenburg and Del. Adele McClure introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flis.virginia.gov\u002Fcgi-bin\u002Flegp604.exe?241%20sum%20SB195\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">SB 195\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flis.virginia.gov\u002Fcgi-bin\u002Flegp604.exe?241%20sum%20HB368\">HB 368\u003C\u002Fa>, respectively, directing the board to convene a stakeholder advisory group to evaluate and recommend building code revisions to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories, with findings and recommendations due by December 1, 2024. The bills were \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.commonwealthhousingcoalition.org\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">supported by a coalition\u003C\u002Fa> of YIMBY, urbanist, affordable housing, Realtor, and homebuilder groups. The legislation passed both houses with overwhelming bipartisan support, and was signed into law by Gov. Glenn Youngkin on April 4, 2024.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>An unpaid advisory group convened to meet the requirements of the law met three times in person and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Frga.lis.virginia.gov\u002FPublished\u002F2024\u002FRD845\">issued a report\u003C\u002Fa> in Nov. 2024 summarizing the issue and some possible ways forward. It did not itself develop any model code language, but rather recommended that another workgroup be formed during the normal code development process to draw up code language.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>A single-exit study group was formed in 2025 as part of the code cycle process and reviewed, but did not reach a consensus, on a revised Solla-Yates proposal to allow single-stair buildings up to four stories, with similar language as the compromise IBC proposal E24-24.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>During the board’s regular code cycle process in 2025-26, two single-stair code changes were proposed: a further refined proposal from Solla-Yates permitting single-stair up to four stories (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fva.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F1273\u002F1790\u002Fpreview\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-saferedirecturl=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?q=https:\u002F\u002Fva.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F1273\u002F1790\u002Fpreview\u002F&source=gmail&ust=1778970152251000&usg=AOvVaw0EONxehQzAYG0039LgDwQM\">B1006.3.4-24\u003C\u002Fa>), and one from the Home Builders Association of Virginia permitting single-stair up to the high-rise height limit (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fva.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F1530\u002F2260\u002Fpreview\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" data-saferedirecturl=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?q=https:\u002F\u002Fva.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F1530\u002F2260\u002Fpreview\u002F&source=gmail&ust=1778970152252000&usg=AOvVaw3Tr0r5SMN8udiVpoqK9R5e\">B1006.3.4(1)-24\u003C\u002Fa>). The Home Builders’ proposal met stiff opposition from the fire service, but the four-story proposal did not have any opposition. In May 2026, the board adopted the four-story proposal for inclusion in the code update as part of the rulemaking process. It is expected to be effective in 2027.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>As part of Virginia’s code cycle update process in 2025-26, Charlottesville Planning Commission member Lyle Solla-Yates submitted a code change proposal (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fva.cdpaccess.com\u002Fproposal\u002F1292\u002F1914\u002Fpreview\u002F\">B3002.4-24\u003C\u002Fa>) to modernize the state’s elevator requirement. The proposal would remove the requirement for elevators in smaller residential buildings up to six stories, if they are voluntarily provided, to accommodate an 84-in. stretcher. The proposal was supported by AARP Virginia and the Home Builders Association of Virginia, AIA Virginia, but it faced strong opposition from the fire service. The code proposal was rejected by the Codes and Standards Committee of the state’s Board of Housing and Community Development.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1877,"collection":1882,"about":1884,"acf:post":1886,"wp:attachment":1888,"curies":1891},[1878],{"href":1879,"targetHints":1880},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F214",{"allow":1881},[35],[1883],{"href":471},[1885],{"href":474},[1887],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1889],{"href":1890},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=214",[1892],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1894,"date":1895,"date_gmt":1895,"guid":1896,"modified":1898,"modified_gmt":1898,"slug":1899,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1900,"title":1901,"content":1903,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1904,"class_list":1905,"acf":1907,"_links":1912},213,"2024-12-16T12:11:37",{"rendered":1897},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=213","2025-01-22T20:39:31","toronto","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Ftoronto\u002F",{"rendered":1902},"Toronto",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1906,446,454,26,27],"post-213",{"place":1902,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1908,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1909,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1910,"description":1911,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},207,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In June 2024, LMDG \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.toronto.ca\u002Flegdocs\u002Fmmis\u002F2024\u002Fph\u002Fbgrd\u002Fbackgroundfile-247234.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">published a report\u003C\u002Fa> for the City of Toronto about the feasibility of allowing single-stair buildings, finding that it would be feasible to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to four stories. Toronto does not have the authority to write its own building code, so as an interim step while Ontario reconsiders the provincial code, the city's chief building official \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.toronto.ca\u002Flegdocs\u002Fmmis\u002F2024\u002Fph\u002Fbgrd\u002Fbackgroundfile-247213.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">wrote to Toronto City Council\u003C\u002Fa> to recommend that it issue guidance to developers to use the document to prepare \"alternative solution proposals\" to seek permission to build single-stair apartment buildings in the city.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1913,"collection":1918,"about":1920,"acf:post":1922,"wp:attachment":1925,"curies":1928},[1914],{"href":1915,"targetHints":1916},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F213",{"allow":1917},[35],[1919],{"href":471},[1921],{"href":474},[1923],{"embeddable":44,"href":1924},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F207",[1926],{"href":1927},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=213",[1929],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1172,"date":1931,"date_gmt":1931,"guid":1932,"modified":1934,"modified_gmt":1934,"slug":1935,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1936,"title":1937,"content":1939,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1940,"class_list":1941,"acf":1943,"_links":1947},"2024-12-16T12:04:09",{"rendered":1933},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=212","2026-06-11T17:47:26","tennessee","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Ftennessee\u002F",{"rendered":1938},"Tennessee",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[1942,446,454,26,27],"post-212",{"place":1938,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":1944,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1945,"description":1946,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In Feb. 2024, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwapp.capitol.tn.gov\u002Fapps\u002FBillInfo\u002FDefault.aspx?BillNumber=SB2834&GA=113\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">SB 2834\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwapp.capitol.tn.gov\u002Fapps\u002FBillInfo\u002FDefault?BillNumber=HB2925&GA=113\">HB 2925\u003C\u002Fa> were introduced by Sen. John Stevens and Rep. Cameron Sexton, respectively, of the Tennessee legislature to allow (but not require) local jurisdictions in the state to adopt building code sections allowing single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories in height, with a suite of safety measures similar to Seattle's. The legislation passed and was signed \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadvance.lexis.com\u002Fdocumentprint\u002Fdocumentprintclick\u002F?pdmfid=1000516&crid=2868f3bc-1b22-4f28-ac4d-d1c831927017&ecomp=h2vckkk&prid=281e27da-28dd-4c7a-8392-1f08c3294358\">into law\u003C\u002Fa> on April 29, 2024 by Gov. Bill Lee, taking immediate effect.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1948,"collection":1952,"about":1954,"acf:post":1956,"wp:attachment":1958,"curies":1961},[1949],{"href":1188,"targetHints":1950},{"allow":1951},[35],[1953],{"href":471},[1955],{"href":474},[1957],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[1959],{"href":1960},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=212",[1962],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1964,"date":1965,"date_gmt":1965,"guid":1966,"modified":1968,"modified_gmt":1968,"slug":1969,"status":10,"type":446,"link":1970,"title":1971,"content":1973,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":1974,"class_list":1975,"acf":1977,"_links":1981},211,"2024-12-16T12:02:39",{"rendered":1967},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=211","2026-05-26T21:29:59","san-francisco","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fsan-francisco\u002F",{"rendered":1972},"San Francisco",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[1976,446,454,26,27],"post-211",{"place":1972,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":640,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":1978,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":1979,"description":1980,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>On Oct. 23, 2024, San Francisco Board of Supervisors President Aaron Peskin introduced a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsfgov.legistar.com\u002FLegislationDetail.aspx?ID=6904478&GUID=43203D34-057F-4C5B-8F9A-721B798ABF2B&Options=&Search=\">resolution\u003C\u002Fa> to call on the city \"to form a working group to propose new rules to safely allow single-stair buildings\" up to six stories. Planning Commission Vice President Kathrin Moore supported the concept, saying that upzoning with current building codes would lead to \"extruded elongated cubes of cumbersome sameness.\" San Francisco Mayor London Breed \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.sfchronicle.com\u002Fsf\u002Farticle\u002Fsf-housing-staircases-19857913.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">supported the potential code change\u003C\u002Fa>, and said that city officials had already started meeting a month earlier to discuss it. On Oct. 29, 2024, the board passed the resolution unanimously.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In early Jan. 2025, the working group updated the board in a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsfgov.legistar.com\u002FView.ashx?M=F&ID=13668969&GUID=4A8A096F-8946-41A9-B8BC-27B7EAAFE9CE#page=282\">memo\u003C\u002Fa> noting that they were still working on rules and several outstanding questions they were working on. If the working group decides to move forward with single-stair, the working group said it would come back to the board with a proposed ordinance.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Nov. 2025, the board passed updates to the city’s building codes as proposed by city staff. No changes to the two-stair requirement were included in the updates.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":1982,"collection":1987,"about":1989,"acf:post":1991,"wp:attachment":1993,"curies":1996},[1983],{"href":1984,"targetHints":1985},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F211",{"allow":1986},[35],[1988],{"href":471},[1990],{"href":474},[1992],{"embeddable":44,"href":656},[1994],{"href":1995},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=211",[1997],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1999,"date":2000,"date_gmt":2000,"guid":2001,"modified":2003,"modified_gmt":2003,"slug":2004,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2005,"title":2006,"content":2008,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2009,"class_list":2010,"acf":2012,"_links":2017},210,"2024-12-16T12:01:15",{"rendered":2002},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=210","2026-03-02T14:54:31","rhode-island","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Frhode-island\u002F",{"rendered":2007},"Rhode Island",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2011,446,454,26,27],"post-210",{"place":2007,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":2013,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2014,"description":2015,"description_2":2016,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461,1101],"\u003Cp>In 2024, 14 Rhode Island state legislators co-sponsored \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegiscan.com\u002FRI\u002Fbill\u002FS2761\u002F2024\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">S2761\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegiscan.com\u002FRI\u002Fbill\u002FH7893\u002F2024\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">H7893\u003C\u002Fa> which would have, among other things, directed the state's fire marshal and building commissioner to develop recommendations for single-stair buildings up to six stories. The bills were held for further study.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>In Feb. 2026, the issue was revived with \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegiscan.com\u002FRI\u002Fbill\u002FH8002\u002F2026\">H8002\u003C\u002Fa>, which would allow single-stair apartment buildings with up to four stories and 16 total units. The bill is part of a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.yahoo.com\u002Fnews\u002Farticles\u002Fri-house-speaker-unveils-housing-002058800.html\">larger housing package\u003C\u002Fa> supported by the Speaker of the House.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In April 2025, Rhode Island's governor and housing secretary \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fhousing.ri.gov\u002Fdata-reports\u002Fstate-housing-plan-housing-2030\">released a draft\u003C\u002Fa> of their \u003Cem>Housing 2030\u003C\u002Fem> plan. In the section on addressing zoning and regulatory barriers, the report mentions reviewing state building codes, with a reduction in elevator cabin sizes as an example of changes that the state will discuss.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2018,"collection":2023,"about":2025,"acf:post":2027,"wp:attachment":2029,"curies":2032},[2019],{"href":2020,"targetHints":2021},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F210",{"allow":2022},[35],[2024],{"href":471},[2026],{"href":474},[2028],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[2030],{"href":2031},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=210",[2033],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":887,"date":2035,"date_gmt":2035,"guid":2036,"modified":2038,"modified_gmt":2038,"slug":2039,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2040,"title":2041,"content":2043,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2044,"class_list":2045,"acf":2047,"_links":2051},"2024-12-16T11:57:58",{"rendered":2037},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=208","2025-06-30T23:39:46","oregon","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Foregon\u002F",{"rendered":2042},"Oregon",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2046,446,454,26,27],"post-208",{"place":2042,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":2048,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2049,"description":2050,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Folis.oregonlegislature.gov\u002Fliz\u002F2023R1\u002FDownloads\u002FMeasureDocument\u002FSB847\u002FA-Engrossed\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">SB 847\u003C\u002Fa>, introduced by Sen. Kayse Jama in 2023, asked the Building Codes Structures Board to update the state's building code to allow single-exit apartment buildings by Oct. 1, 2025, consistent with existing codes such as \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fseattle\u002Fibc-2018\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Seattle's single-stair code section\u003C\u002Fa>. The bill language was reintegrated into \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Folis.oregonlegislature.gov\u002Fliz\u002F2023R1\u002FMeasures\u002FOverview\u002FHB3395\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">HB 3395\u003C\u002Fa> with a direction to \"review and consider\" such updates, and was passed by the legislature and signed into law by Gov. Tina Kotek on June 30, 2023. The single-stair study provision is part of a package of housing reforms, and was championed by \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.sightline.org\u002F\">Sightline Institute\u003C\u002Fa>, with the Center for Building’s help.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>On Aug. 27, 2024, the board chair stated that they would discharge their duties under state law by hearing one \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.oregon.gov\u002Fbcd\u002Fcodes-stand\u002FDocuments\u002F25ossc\u002Fpp-02-anderson-smallapartment.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">code change proposal\u003C\u002Fa> by Sightline Institute and the Center for Building to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories at the discretion of the local building official based on fire service equipment capacity. They voted it down unanimously.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>The board later formed a work group to discuss a compromise, and settled on an optional appendix, which can be adopted at the discretion of individual jurisdictions, to allow four-story buildings with a single exit and up to four apartments over 4,000 net square feet per floor, roughly in line with NFPA 101 provisions, and based on the E24-24 modification approved by the Means of Egress committee for the 2027 model IBC. The appendix (a finalized copy of which \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F06\u002F25ossc-AppendixQ-single-stair.pdf\">can be found here\u003C\u002Fa>) was ultimately approved by the Building Codes Structures Board to be part of the published 2025 Oregon Structural Specialty Code, anticipated to become effective on October 1, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2052,"collection":2056,"about":2058,"acf:post":2060,"wp:attachment":2062,"curies":2065},[2053],{"href":903,"targetHints":2054},{"allow":2055},[35],[2057],{"href":471},[2059],{"href":474},[2061],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[2063],{"href":2064},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=208",[2066],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2068,"date":2069,"date_gmt":2069,"guid":2070,"modified":2072,"modified_gmt":2072,"slug":2073,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2074,"title":2075,"content":2077,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2078,"class_list":2079,"acf":2081,"_links":2085},209,"2024-12-16T11:57:22",{"rendered":2071},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=209","2025-01-28T17:24:47","pennsylvania","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fpennsylvania\u002F",{"rendered":2076},"Pennsylvania",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2080,446,454,26,27],"post-209",{"place":2076,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":2082,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2083,"description":2084,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In 2024, Rep. Joshua Siegel (representing a district in and around Allentown) introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.legis.state.pa.us\u002Fcfdocs\u002Fbillinfo\u002Fbillinfo.cfm?bn=1988&body=H&sind=0&syear=2023&type=B\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">HB 1988\u003C\u002Fa> in the Pennsylvania General Assembly to establish a technical advisory committee to modify the state's building code to allow single-exit multifamily buildings up to six stories. The bill has 17 other cosponsors and the support of 10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania and the Center for Building in North America, and is part of a broader \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.legis.state.pa.us\u002F\u002Fcfdocs\u002FLegis\u002FCSM\u002FshowMemoPublic.cfm?SPick=20230&chamber=H&cosponId=41694\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">housing affordability package\u003C\u002Fa> that includes two zoning reform bills.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2086,"collection":2091,"about":2093,"acf:post":2095,"wp:attachment":2097,"curies":2100},[2087],{"href":2088,"targetHints":2089},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F209",{"allow":2090},[35],[2092],{"href":471},[2094],{"href":474},[2096],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[2098],{"href":2099},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=209",[2101],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1908,"date":2103,"date_gmt":2103,"guid":2104,"modified":2106,"modified_gmt":2106,"slug":2107,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2108,"title":2109,"content":2111,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2112,"class_list":2113,"acf":2115,"_links":2119},"2024-12-16T11:54:06",{"rendered":2105},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=207","2026-05-20T19:19:19","ontario","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fontario\u002F",{"rendered":2110},"Ontario",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2114,446,454,26,27],"post-207",{"place":2110,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":1767,"state_country_belong":2116,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2117,"description":2118,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>The government of Ontario \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fnews.ontario.ca\u002Fen\u002Fbackgrounder\u002F1004423\u002Fcutting-red-tape-to-build-more-homes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">wrote on April 10, 2024\u003C\u002Fa> that after releasing a new edition of the province's building code, it intends to \"consult with fire-safety stakeholders on single-exit stair in small residential buildings.\"\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">This topic had also been discussed in the 1990s when the provincial government \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.codenews.ca\u002FOBC\u002Fdocs\u002FOntarioMainStreets-A1995.pdf\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">commissioned a report\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> recommending code changes for “Mainstreets Development.” At the time, stakeholders were concerned at the cost of requiring sprinklers and fire departments did not support the concept. In 2012, the Ontario Building Code was updated to require sprinklers in new buildings over three stories regardless of the number of exits.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2120,"collection":2124,"about":2126,"acf:post":2128,"wp:attachment":2130,"curies":2133},[2121],{"href":1924,"targetHints":2122},{"allow":2123},[35],[2125],{"href":471},[2127],{"href":474},[2129],{"embeddable":44,"href":1782},[2131],{"href":2132},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=207",[2134],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2136,"date":2137,"date_gmt":2137,"guid":2138,"modified":2140,"modified_gmt":2140,"slug":2141,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2142,"title":2143,"content":2145,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2146,"class_list":2147,"acf":2149,"_links":2153},206,"2024-12-16T11:52:16",{"rendered":2139},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=206","2026-06-11T17:53:27","nashville","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fnashville\u002F",{"rendered":2144},"Nashville",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2148,446,454,26,27],"post-206",{"place":2144,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1172,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":2150,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2151,"description":2152,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>After the enactment of legislation allow local jurisdictions to permit single-stair buildings by the state legislature (see Tennessee tracker for more details), District 20 Council Member Rollin Horton \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nashvillepost.com\u002Fpolitics\u002Fmetro\u002Fmissing-middle-housing-targeted-in-nashville-zoning-reform-push\u002Farticle_2e2109ba-bf8d-11ee-ac53-a35a08a2a1ed.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">introduced a bill\u003C\u002Fa>, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fnashville.legistar.com\u002FLegislationDetail.aspx?GUID=E78FEA01-2914-44F0-AA1C-AC9E5F20F6FF&ID=6500897&Options=&Search=\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">BL2024-181\u003C\u002Fa>, in the 2024 legislative session to change the consolidated city-county’s building code to allow single-stair buildings up to six stories. The legislation did not pass that session, but language allowing single-stair was incorporated into the city's building code update at \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fnashville.legistar.com\u002FLegislationDetail.aspx?ID=7433986&GUID=B8491A2F-6B1C-4507-A310-2058064BA422&FullText=1\">BL2025-898\u003C\u002Fa>, which passed unanimously on July 15, 2025. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fnashville\u002Fibc-2024\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.4\">code text\u003C\u002Fa> added additional restrictions beyond what the state law required, and applies to the more urban parts of the jurisdiction.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2154,"collection":2159,"about":2161,"acf:post":2163,"wp:attachment":2165,"curies":2168},[2155],{"href":2156,"targetHints":2157},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F206",{"allow":2158},[35],[2160],{"href":471},[2162],{"href":474},[2164],{"embeddable":44,"href":1188},[2166],{"href":2167},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=206",[2169],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2171,"date":2172,"date_gmt":2172,"guid":2173,"modified":2175,"modified_gmt":2175,"slug":2176,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2177,"title":2178,"content":2180,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2181,"class_list":2182,"acf":2184,"_links":2188},205,"2024-12-16T11:46:46",{"rendered":2174},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=205","2026-06-11T17:57:34","knoxville","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fknoxville\u002F",{"rendered":2179},"Knoxville",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2183,446,454,26,27],"post-205",{"place":2179,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1172,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":2185,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2186,"description":2187,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>Following state enabling legislation signed into law in April 2024 (see Tennessee tracker for more details), the Knoxville City Council in Nov. 2024 passed an updated building code with language allowing single-stair multifamily buildings up to six stories, with no more than four units per story. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fmcclibraryfunctions.azurewebsites.us\u002Fapi\u002FordinanceDownload\u002F11098\u002F1329188\u002Fpdf#page=5\">language\u003C\u002Fa> became effective on Jan. 1, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2189,"collection":2194,"about":2196,"acf:post":2198,"wp:attachment":2200,"curies":2203},[2190],{"href":2191,"targetHints":2192},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F205",{"allow":2193},[35],[2195],{"href":471},[2197],{"href":474},[2199],{"embeddable":44,"href":1188},[2201],{"href":2202},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=205",[2204],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2206,"date":2207,"date_gmt":2207,"guid":2208,"modified":2210,"modified_gmt":2210,"slug":2211,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2212,"title":2213,"content":2215,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2216,"class_list":2217,"acf":2219,"_links":2224},204,"2024-12-16T11:45:00",{"rendered":2209},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=204","2026-05-20T19:08:48","connecticut","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fconnecticut\u002F",{"rendered":2214},"Connecticut",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2218,446,454,26,27],"post-204",{"place":2214,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":2220,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2221,"description":2222,"description_2":2223,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461,1101],"\u003Cp>In 2024, the Public Safety and Security Committee of the Connecticut General Assembly introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cga.ct.gov\u002Fasp\u002Fcgabillstatus\u002Fcgabillstatus.asp?bill_num=SB00343&selBillType=Bill&which_year=2024\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">SB 343\u003C\u002Fa>, which contained a provision that would have legalized single-stair multifamily up to six stories. After fire service opposition, this section was removed, but similar language reemerged in an annual \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cga.ct.gov\u002F2024\u002FTOB\u002FH\u002FPDF\u002F2024HB-05524-R00-HB.PDF#page=106\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">borrowing bill\u003C\u002Fa> in May 2024, directing the adoption of language for the 2026 building code allowing single-exit apartment buildings taller than the current three-story limit.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Connecticut's Office of the State Building Inspector, in their \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fportal.ct.gov\u002Fdas\u002F-\u002Fmedia\u002Fdas\u002Foffice-of-state-building-inspector\u002F2026-csbc-public-comment-8-28-2025.pdf?rev=fc592b4f68b044818689d89ab5e2fc11&hash=12464EDCDFD943A277969261DE10DE06\">first draft\u003C\u002Fa> of the 2026 building code, proposed an optional appendix allowing six-story single-stair apartment buildings, with a difficult set of conditions. This was changed for the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fportal.ct.gov\u002Fdas\u002F-\u002Fmedia\u002Fdas\u002Fcode-adoption\u002F2026-legislative-drafts\u002F2026-csbc-for-lrrc-review-12-02-2025.pdf?rev=a98f523150264e678a7f9cf26a8e1697&hash=DDC581EA3920C958862CBE16FE47C81C\">second draft\u003C\u002Fa> to lower the height limit to four stories, in line with longstanding NFPA codes and upcoming changes to the IBC, and to allow them statewide. Fire service organizations, however, mobilized support to oppose allowing even one additional story according to model code standards. \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In face of this opposition, in March 2026 \u003C\u002Fspan>lawmakers \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">passed an \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cga.ct.gov\u002Fasp\u002FCGABillStatus\u002Fcgabillstatus.asp?selBillType=Bill&bill_num=SB298\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">omnibus bill\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> that repealed the provisions passed in 2024.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In Jan. 2025, Rep. Jason Rojas introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cga.ct.gov\u002Fasp\u002Fcgabillstatus\u002Fcgabillstatus.asp?selBillType=Bill&bill_num=HB06646&which_year=2025\">HB 6646\u003C\u002Fa>, which would amend the State Building Code to allow developers of residential buildings of not more than six stories and 24 dwelling units to install smaller elevators than currently required, as long as they accommodate wheelchairs. The bill was referred to the Joint Committee on Public Safety and Security, but did not advance any further.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2225,"collection":2230,"about":2232,"acf:post":2234,"wp:attachment":2236,"curies":2239},[2226],{"href":2227,"targetHints":2228},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F204",{"allow":2229},[35],[2231],{"href":471},[2233],{"href":474},[2235],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[2237],{"href":2238},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=204",[2240],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":604,"date":2242,"date_gmt":2242,"guid":2243,"modified":2245,"modified_gmt":2245,"slug":2246,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2247,"title":2248,"content":2250,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2251,"class_list":2252,"acf":2254,"_links":2258},"2024-12-16T11:37:58",{"rendered":2244},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=202","2026-05-23T22:39:02","colorado","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fcolorado\u002F",{"rendered":2249},"Colorado",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2253,446,454,26,27],"post-202",{"place":2249,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":2255,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2256,"description":2257,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In 2024, State Rep. Alex Valez and Sen. Kevin Priola introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fleg.colorado.gov\u002Fbills\u002Fhb24-1239\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">House Bill 24-1239\u003C\u002Fa> to allow for the construction of single-exit multifamily buildings up to six stories in total height. Colorado does not have a statewide building code, so the bill required counties and municipalities to adopt these code provisions. Peter LiFari (CEO of Maiker Housing Partners, the Adams County public housing authority), Sean Jursnick (an architect with Denver-based SAR+), and others assisted with this legislation. The bill was tabled after fire service opposition.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>The issue was revived in Feb. 2025 when, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cpr.org\u002F2025\u002F01\u002F09\u002Fgov-jared-polis-2025-state-of-the-state\u002F\">with the support of Gov. Jared Polis\u003C\u002Fa>, Reps. Andrew Boesenecker and Steven Woodrow and Sen. Matt Ball introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fleg.colorado.gov\u002Fbills\u002Fhb25-1273\">HB25-1273\u003C\u002Fa>. The bill requires municipalities with populations of at least 100,000 people to adopt, by Dec. 1, 2027, building code language allowing five-story apartment buildings served by a single stairway, under a set of conditions laid out in the bill's text. The bill was passed by both chambers of the legislature and signed into law by the governor on May 13, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2259,"collection":2263,"about":2265,"acf:post":2267,"wp:attachment":2269,"curies":2272},[2260],{"href":620,"targetHints":2261},{"allow":2262},[35],[2264],{"href":471},[2266],{"href":474},[2268],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[2270],{"href":2271},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=202",[2273],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":1767,"date":2275,"date_gmt":2275,"guid":2276,"modified":2278,"modified_gmt":2278,"slug":2279,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2280,"title":2281,"content":2283,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2284,"class_list":2285,"acf":2287,"_links":2291},"2024-12-16T11:35:17",{"rendered":2277},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=201","2025-01-18T13:29:12","canada","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fcanada\u002F",{"rendered":2282},"Canada",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2286,446,454,26,27],"post-201",{"place":2282,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":1632,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":2288,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2289,"description":2290,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"In April 2022, Conrad Speckert – a Toronto-based architect and author of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecondegress.ca\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">secondegress.ca\u003C\u002Fa>, a project to compare multifamily egress rules around the world – \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca\u002Fen\u002Fcertifications-evaluations-standards\u002Fcodes-canada\u002Fcodes-development-process\u002Fcode_change_requests.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">submitted two code change requests\u003C\u002Fa> (CCRs 1815 and 1816) to the Canadian Board for Harmonized Construction Codes, to raise the country's two-story limit on single-stair multifamily buildings to three and six stories, depending on building type, with additional life safety measures. The board reviewed the requests and in April 2023, decided to develop these for the upcoming code change cycle.",{"self":2292,"collection":2296,"about":2298,"wp:attachment":2300,"curies":2303},[2293],{"href":1782,"targetHints":2294},{"allow":2295},[35],[2297],{"href":471},[2299],{"href":474},[2301],{"href":2302},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=201",[2304],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2306,"date":2307,"date_gmt":2307,"guid":2308,"modified":2310,"modified_gmt":2310,"slug":2311,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2312,"title":2313,"content":2315,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2316,"class_list":2317,"acf":2319,"_links":2323},200,"2024-12-16T11:33:39",{"rendered":2309},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=200","2026-06-12T17:24:56","austin","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Faustin\u002F",{"rendered":2314},"Austin",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[2318,446,454,26,27],"post-200",{"place":2314,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1302,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":2320,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2321,"description":2322,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":568,"name_state":1310,"name_country":570},[461],"\u003Cp>After public comments in support of taller single-stair buildings in \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpublicinput.com\u002FCustomer\u002FFile\u002FFull\u002F84b1ed76-e71f-4f2a-85f8-1e13108a1962\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">April 2024\u003C\u002Fa>, Austin City Council \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fservices.austintexas.gov\u002Fedims\u002Fdocument.cfm?id=430047\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">passed a resolution\u003C\u002Fa> in May, sponsored by Council Member Chito Vela, directing city staff to \"evaluate and provide options\" for allowing single-stair apartment buildings up to at least five stories as part of the city's 2024 cycle of building code updates (Texas is a home rule state, and building codes are adopted locally). After a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fservices.austintexas.gov\u002Fedims\u002Fpio\u002Fdocument.cfm?id=430915\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">opposition to changes\u003C\u002Fa> from city staff, the council persisted with its request, and after a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpublicinput.com\u002FCustomer\u002FFile\u002FFull\u002Fe54561f5-4345-48ac-aa32-b148cf371575\">few\u003C\u002Fa> \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fservices.austintexas.gov\u002Fedims\u002Fdocument.cfm?id=444525\">proposals\u003C\u002Fa>, passed an amendment to allow \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fservices.austintexas.gov\u002Fedims\u002Fdocument.cfm?id=449098\">single-stair apartment buildings up to five stories\u003C\u002Fa> under a few conditions, including requiring an elevator. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Faura-atx.org\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">AURA\u003C\u002Fa> (a local urbanist organization) and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Faiaaustin.org\u002Fcommittees\u002Fhousing-advocacy\u002F\">AIA Austin\u003C\u002Fa> supported code changes during the process. The \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Faustin\u002Fibc-2024\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#new_1006.3.4.2\">code text\u003C\u002Fa> took effect on July 10, 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Separate motions also direct study of how to safely \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fservices.austintexas.gov\u002Fedims\u002Fdocument.cfm?id=449173\">expand floor area limits\u003C\u002Fa> beyond 4,000 sq. ft. per story, and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fservices.austintexas.gov\u002Fedims\u002Fdocument.cfm?id=449142\">annual reporting\u003C\u002Fa> on single-stair buildings permitted and built.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2324,"collection":2329,"about":2331,"acf:post":2333,"wp:attachment":2335,"curies":2338},[2325],{"href":2326,"targetHints":2327},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F200",{"allow":2328},[35],[2330],{"href":471},[2332],{"href":474},[2334],{"embeddable":44,"href":1322},[2336],{"href":2337},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=200",[2339],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2341,"date":2342,"date_gmt":2342,"guid":2343,"modified":2345,"modified_gmt":2345,"slug":2346,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2347,"title":2348,"content":2350,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2351,"class_list":2352,"acf":2354,"_links":2360},154,"2024-12-12T10:22:08",{"rendered":2344},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=154","2026-05-26T21:17:08","new-york-city","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fnew-york-city\u002F",{"rendered":2349},"New York City",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2353,446,454,26,27],"post-154",{"place":2349,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":2355,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":2356,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2357,"description":2358,"description_2":2359,"description_3":16},153,{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461,1101],"\u003Cp>New York City’s building code has permitted single-stair buildings up to six stories since \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nyc.gov\u002Fassets\u002Fbuildings\u002Fbuilding_code\u002F1938BC_ARTICLE7.pdf#page=3\">1938\u003C\u002Fa>. The current code language can be found \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fnew_york_city\u002Fnyc-building-code-2022\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.2\">here\u003C\u002Fa>. Over \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fpewtrusts.org\u002Fen\u002Fresearch-and-analysis\u002Freports\u002F2025\u002F02\u002Fsmall-single-stairway-apartment-buildings-have-strong-safety-record\">4,000 single-stair buildings\u003C\u002Fa> above the IBC’s three-story height limit have been built throughout the city, most since the city began requiring sprinklers in 1999.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>City Council \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegistar.council.nyc.gov\u002FLegislationDetail.aspx?GUID=37FE9CD9-BF36-4B6F-A20A-70FA1A52E99C&ID=5898998\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Int. 0794-2022\u003C\u002Fa> would have amended the New York City Building Code to double the allowed floor plate of single-stair buildings up to six stories, from the current 2,000-sq. ft. limit to 4,000 sq. ft. The bill was sponsored by CMs Rita Joseph and Farah Louis. The bill did not receive further consideration by the city council.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>On May 26, 2026, Mayor Zohran Mamdani \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nyc.gov\u002Fcontent\u002Fdam\u002Fnycgov\u002Fnyc-main\u002Fpdf\u002F2026\u002Fblock-by-block-report.pdf#page=98\">announced\u003C\u002Fa> his administration would convene an Affordable & Efficient Code Reform (AECR) task force starting in late 2026. The task force will identify ways to save costs throughout the city’s construction codes without sacrificing safety. Among other things, AECR will review NYC’s elevator requirements, including those mandating minimum sizes. Additionally, the city’s department of buildings will launch a pilot in 2026 to permit existing walk-up buildings to install elevators that otherwise do not meet the city’s size requirements.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2361,"collection":2366,"about":2368,"acf:post":2370,"wp:attachment":2373,"curies":2376},[2362],{"href":2363,"targetHints":2364},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F154",{"allow":2365},[35],[2367],{"href":471},[2369],{"href":474},[2371],{"embeddable":44,"href":2372},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F153",[2374],{"href":2375},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=154",[2377],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2355,"date":2379,"date_gmt":2379,"guid":2380,"modified":2382,"modified_gmt":2382,"slug":2383,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2384,"title":2385,"content":2387,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2388,"class_list":2389,"acf":2391,"_links":2395},"2024-12-12T10:20:09",{"rendered":2381},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=153","2026-05-20T19:18:00","new-york","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fnew-york\u002F",{"rendered":2386},"New York",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2390,446,454,26,27],"post-153",{"place":2386,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":2392,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2393,"description":2394,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In 2023, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nysenate.gov\u002Flegislation\u002Fbills\u002F2023\u002FS6573\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">S6573\u003C\u002Fa> (introduced by Sen. Rachel May and cosponsored by Sen. Jabari Brisport) and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nysenate.gov\u002Flegislation\u002Fbills\u002F2023\u002FA7322\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">A7322\u003C\u002Fa> (introduced by Asm. Anna Kelles) asked the state fire prevention and building code council to consider changes to the state building code that would bring it more in line with codes in New York City and elsewhere, which allow for single-stair buildings above the current three-story height limit that applies to the state outside of New York City. The language made it into the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nysenate.gov\u002Flegislation\u002Fbills\u002F2023\u002FS8306\u002Famendment\u002FC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">2024 state budget bill\u003C\u002Fa> signed by the Gov. Kathy Hochul in April, with a study on the subject being due by July 1, 2026.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>The contract to conduct the study was \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwwe2.osc.state.ny.us\u002Ftransparency\u002Fcontracts\u002Fcontracttransactions.cfm?Contract=0000000000000000000173139\">awarded to Jensen Hughes\u003C\u002Fa> in the amount of $331,000, with a start date of June 2025 and an end date of May 2027.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In May 2026, Sen. Erik Bottcher introduced \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nysenate.gov\u002Flegislation\u002Fbills\u002F2025\u002FS10501\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">S10501\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> which would require the council to update the state building code to allow single-stair buildings up to six stories subject to the conditions laid out in the bill text. As introduced, the bill would only apply to New York City and requires the city to update its building code to be equivalent or more permissive than the state’s code provisions.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2396,"collection":2400,"about":2402,"acf:post":2404,"wp:attachment":2406,"curies":2409},[2397],{"href":2372,"targetHints":2398},{"allow":2399},[35],[2401],{"href":471},[2403],{"href":474},[2405],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[2407],{"href":2408},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=153",[2410],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2412,"date":2413,"date_gmt":2413,"guid":2414,"modified":2416,"modified_gmt":2416,"slug":2417,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2418,"title":2419,"content":2421,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2422,"class_list":2423,"acf":2425,"_links":2429},152,"2024-12-12T10:07:47",{"rendered":2415},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=152","2026-05-20T19:17:20","minnesota","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fminnesota\u002F",{"rendered":2420},"Minnesota",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2424,446,454,26,27],"post-152",{"place":2420,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":2426,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2427,"description":2428,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>In Feb. 2024, Sen. Lindsey Port and Rep. Larry Kraft introduced \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.revisor.mn.gov\u002Fbills\u002Fbill.php?b=senate&f=SF3538&ssn=0&y=2024\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">SF 3538\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.revisor.mn.gov\u002Fbills\u002Fbill.php?b=House&f=HF3351&ssn=0&y=2024\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">HF 3351\u003C\u002Fa>, respectively, which would have changed the state’s building code to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to the building code’s 75-foot high-rise height limit. The bills were negotiated down into a $225,000 allocation to the state's Department of Labor and Industry (DLI) included in the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.revisor.mn.gov\u002Fbills\u002F93\u002F2024\u002F0\u002FHF\u002F5247\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">2024 state budget\u003C\u002Fa> for DLI study the issue and report on its findings by the end of 2025, signed by Gov. Tim Walz.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>DLI awarded the contract to conduct the study to a team of two fire protection engineering firms – Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. (represented by Nicholas Ozog and Carl Baldassarra) and Crux Consulting (represented by Brian Meacham and Kyle Christensen). The group released their report in Dec. 2025, which found that, in the event of fires which are not contained, single-stair apartment buildings up to eight stories in height with up to eight units per floor put fewer occupants at risk than code-compliant buildings of the same height with two stairways and larger footprints with similar failures. The group also made some recommendations for mitigations that would bring mid-rise single-stair buildings down to the same level of risk as low-rise single-stair buildings. Documents from the technical advisory group are \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.dli.mn.gov\u002Fabout-department\u002Fboards-and-councils\u002Fsingle-exit-stairway-apartments-technical-advisory-group-tag\">available on DLI's website\u003C\u002Fa>, with the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.dli.mn.gov\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002Fpdf\u002FMinnesota_Single-Exit_Stairway_Apartment_report.pdf\">final study available here\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Separately, a state technical advisory group voted unanimously on Oct. 31, 2024 to \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.dli.mn.gov\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002Fpdf\u002FTAG-commercial-121924-handout.pdf\">recommend approval of a code change\u003C\u002Fa> proposed by Minneapolis-based developer Cody Fischer to raise the state’s single-stair height limit from three stories to four, with additional mitigations in lieu of a second exit. The recommendation will be reviewed by DLI for adoption as part of the 2026 Minnesota Building Code. In the meantime, developers and architects may be able to make alternative means and methods requests to abide by the planned code change for individual projects before the adoption of the new state code, with approval at the discretion of local jurisdictions.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In early 2026, Reps. Katie Jones and Larry Kraft and Sens. Lindsey Port, Omar Fateh, Doron Clark, and Liz Boldon introduced companion bills, \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.revisor.mn.gov\u002Fbills\u002F94\u002F2026\u002F0\u002FHF\u002F4545\u002F\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">HF 4545\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> and \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.revisor.mn.gov\u002Fbills\u002F94\u002F2026\u002F0\u002FSF\u002F5153\u002F\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">SF 5153\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, that would direct DLI to adopt code changes that would permit single-stair buildings as recommended by the report. Neither bill received further consideration before the end of the session.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2430,"collection":2435,"about":2437,"acf:post":2439,"wp:attachment":2441,"curies":2444},[2431],{"href":2432,"targetHints":2433},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F152",{"allow":2434},[35],[2436],{"href":471},[2438],{"href":474},[2440],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[2442],{"href":2443},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=152",[2445],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":2447,"date":2448,"date_gmt":2448,"guid":2449,"modified":2451,"modified_gmt":2451,"slug":2452,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2453,"title":2454,"content":2456,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2457,"class_list":2458,"acf":2460,"_links":2464},151,"2024-12-12T10:05:08",{"rendered":2450},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=151","2025-07-12T15:49:10","edmonton","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fedmonton\u002F",{"rendered":2455},"Edmonton",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2459,446,454,26,27],"post-151",{"place":2455,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":566,"parent_state":1767,"parent_country":457,"state_country_belong":2461,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2462,"description":2463,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>On Oct. 8, 2024, the City of Edmonton \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fpub-edmonton.escribemeetings.com\u002Ffilestream.ashx?DocumentId=239973\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">released a report\u003C\u002Fa> saying that it was developing a guideline to encourage developers and architects to submit plans for a variance through its alternative solutions process for single-exit apartment buildings taller than those allowed by the Alberta Edition of Canada's National Building Code. The report also mentioned that \"[v]ariances approved through this process can be used by the Government of Alberta to inform future updates to the prescriptive portions of the codes,\" and may be considered for province-wide bulletins that would enable the development of such buildings across Alberta.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2465,"collection":2470,"about":2472,"acf:post":2474,"wp:attachment":2476,"curies":2479},[2466],{"href":2467,"targetHints":2468},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftrackersmap\u002F151",{"allow":2469},[35],[2471],{"href":471},[2473],{"href":474},[2475],{"embeddable":44,"href":1782},[2477],{"href":2478},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=151",[2480],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":640,"date":2482,"date_gmt":2482,"guid":2483,"modified":2485,"modified_gmt":2485,"slug":2486,"status":10,"type":446,"link":2487,"title":2488,"content":2490,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":2491,"class_list":2492,"acf":2494,"_links":2498},"2024-12-12T09:42:32",{"rendered":2484},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=trackersmap&p=149","2026-05-20T19:07:59","california","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackersmap\u002Fcalifornia\u002F",{"rendered":2489},"California",{"rendered":16,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":44},[2493,446,454,26,27],"post-149",{"place":2489,"preferred_name_list":16,"category":456,"parent_state":457,"parent_country":458,"state_country_belong":2495,"group_of_trackers_this_belongs_to":2496,"description":2497,"description_2":16,"description_3":16},{"typology":16,"name_state":16,"name_country":16},[461],"\u003Cp>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Flegiscan.com\u002FCA\u002Ftext\u002FAB835\u002F2023\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">AB 835\u003C\u002Fa>, introduced by Asm. Alex Lee and coauthored by Asm. Ward and Sen. Scott Wiener in 2023, requires the State Fire Marshal to research standards for single-stair buildings above three stories, and provide a report to the Joint Legislative Committee on Emergency Management and to the California Building Standards Commission by Jan. 1, 2026. It was signed into law by Gov. Gavin Newsom in October 2023. The bill is supported by the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.livablecommunitiesinitiative.com\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Livable Communities Initiative\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcayimby.org\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">California YIMBY\u003C\u002Fa>. Meetings of a working group are currently planned to begin in 2025.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In 2025, the State Fire Marshal convened the Single-Exit Work Group which included representatives from the Center for Building, CA YIMBY, and fire service officials, among others. In March 2026, the State Fire Marshal issued a \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002F34c031f8-c9fd-4018-8c5a-4159cdff6b0d-cdn-endpoint.azureedge.net\u002F-\u002Fmedia\u002Fosfm-website\u002Fwhat-we-do\u002Fcode-development-and-analysis\u002Fworkgroups-2026\u002Fosfmsinglestairsingleexitfinalreport.pdf?rev=98e576def20f4351ba358f88b63fbf02&hash=DF0ED42384CECDA5B6D41EA2B4AEFA69\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">report\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> from the work group that contained a mix of opinions, but stated that if the legislature wanted to enact any code changes in the short term, they limit them to the four-story language being developed for the IBC.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp> \u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In Feb. 2026, Asm. Lee introduced \u003C\u002Fspan>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fleginfo.legislature.ca.gov\u002Ffaces\u002FbillTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=202520260AB2252\">\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">AB 2252\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">, sponsored by the Housing Action Coalition, which would require the Department of Housing and Community Development to develop changes to the state building code to permit single-stair buildings up to six stories to be included in the next state code update. After a hearing in April 2026, the Assembly Housing Committee did not move the bill for further consideration.\u003C\u002Fspan>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"self":2499,"collection":2503,"about":2505,"acf:post":2507,"wp:attachment":2509,"curies":2512},[2500],{"href":656,"targetHints":2501},{"allow":2502},[35],[2504],{"href":471},[2506],{"href":474},[2508],{"embeddable":44,"href":477},[2510],{"href":2511},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=149",[2513],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[2515,2691,2783,2926,3080,3254,3507,3575,3657,3740],{"id":2516,"date":2517,"date_gmt":2517,"guid":2518,"modified":2520,"modified_gmt":2520,"slug":2521,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":2523,"title":2524,"content":2526,"excerpt":2528,"author":51,"featured_media":2530,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":2531,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":2533,"categories":2534,"tags":2535,"class_list":2536,"acf":2542,"_links":2543,"_embedded":2583},1014,"2026-06-19T17:54:24",{"rendered":2519},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?p=1014","2026-06-19T21:50:38","2027-ibc-single-exit-height-limit-to-be-raised-to-four-stories","post","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F2027-ibc-single-exit-height-limit-to-be-raised-to-four-stories\u002F",{"rendered":2525},"2027 IBC single-exit height limit to be raised to four stories",{"rendered":2527,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image alignwide size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"686\" src=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-1024x686.webp\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-1018\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-1024x686.webp 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-300x201.webp 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-768x515.webp 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg.webp 1140w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Park Modern, a four-story single-stair condo building in Seattle. Photo courtesy of BUILD LLC, who designed the building\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">On May 29, 2026, the International Code Council (ICC) \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.iccsafe.org\u002Fbuilding-safety-journal\u002Fbsj-hits\u002Fmiddle-housing-updates-resources-and-the-road-to-2030\u002F\">announced\u003C\u002Fa> that the Center for Building’s single-stair proposal, E24-24, won the support of a majority of the ICC’s governmental membership in its Online Governmental Consensus Vote. This was the last hurdle to our single-stair proposal being included in the next version of the International Building Code (IBC) in 2027.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Our \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcenterforbuilding.org\u002Farticle\u002Four-single-stair\">original proposal\u003C\u002Fa> in 2024 would have allowed up to six stories of up to four apartments per floor to have one stairway. After the original proposal was voted down by the IBC Means of Egress committee, we reached a compromise with other stakeholders to reduce the story limit from six stories to four, along with some other mitigations.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You can read the full code text \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F01\u002FJeff-Shapiros-E24-24-draft-floor-modification-complete.pdf\">here\u003C\u002Fa>, but the basics are that the new code section allows single-stair apartment buildings to be four stories, rather than the previous three, as long as each story is limited to 4,000 square feet of net floor area (this does not include common circulation space).\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">New mitigations include a requirement to install a manual fire alarm system and automatic smoke detectors in common spaces like corridors, and a ban on electrical receptacles (what most people would call an electrical outlet) in the stairway. Sprinklers are also required to be installed in the stairway as required by the NFPA 13 sprinkler standard for combustible stairways (although full NFPA 13 systems are not required), whether the stairway is combustible or noncombustible.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Importantly, a number of cost-increasing mitigations that have been proposed or enacted in some jurisdictions, especially for code sections allowing single-stair buildings above four stories, were not adopted. The stairway may be interior or exterior, and apartment doors are allowed to open directly into an interior exit stairway without an intervening corridor, as they have been in the IBC for three-story buildings. There are no requirements for pressurization of the stairway or extra requirements for pressurization of the elevator hoistway beyond those required by the base code. The stairway width requirement has been left unchanged, in effect requiring a minimum of 36 inches. Any construction type otherwise permitted by the code is allowed. The code’s baseline NFPA 13R sprinkler requirement for buildings up to four stories is left in place.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Center for Building encourages policymakers and advocates interested in single-stair reform to adopt the text as it will appear in the 2027 IBC. While adopting the 2027 IBC will serve to update your jurisdiction’s single-stair code section to allow four stories, jurisdictions may also adopt this section ahead of full adoption of the 2027 code. Jurisdictions that have already adopted code sections allowing taller single-stair buildings than were allowed in the 2024 or prior codes should update their IBC adoption to reflect this new text, as even if they currently allow five- or six-story apartment buildings with a single exit, it is likely under a stricter set of conditions for four-story buildings than will appear in the 2027 IBC. For further questions or if you require technical assistance, please reach out to \u003Ca href=\"mailto:william@centerforbuilding.org\">William Skudlarek\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":2529,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>On May 29, 2026, the International Code Council (ICC) announced that the Center for Building’s single-stair proposal, E24-24, won the support of a majority of the ICC’s governmental membership in its Online Governmental Consensus Vote. This was the last hurdle to our single-stair proposal being included in the next version of the International Building Code […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",1018,"open","standard",{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[19],[],[2537,2522,2538,26,2539,2540,27,2541],"post-1014","type-post","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","category-news",{"author":301,"related_articles":16,"image_on_hover":2530},{"self":2544,"collection":2549,"about":2552,"author":2555,"replies":2557,"version-history":2560,"predecessor-version":2564,"wp:featuredmedia":2568,"wp:attachment":2571,"wp:term":2574,"curies":2581},[2545],{"href":2546,"targetHints":2547},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F1014",{"allow":2548},[35],[2550],{"href":2551},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts",[2553],{"href":2554},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftypes\u002Fpost",[2556],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[2558],{"embeddable":44,"href":2559},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=1014",[2561],{"count":2562,"href":2563},22,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F1014\u002Frevisions",[2565],{"id":2566,"href":2567},1043,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F1014\u002Frevisions\u002F1043",[2569],{"embeddable":44,"href":2570},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia\u002F1018",[2572],{"href":2573},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1014",[2575,2578],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":2577},"category","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=1014",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":2580},"post_tag","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=1014",[2582],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":2584,"wp:featuredmedia":2602,"wp:term":2668},[2585],{"id":51,"name":2586,"url":16,"description":16,"link":2587,"slug":2588,"avatar_urls":2589,"acf":2593,"_links":2594},"Center-for-Building","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fauthor\u002Fadmin\u002F","admin",{"24":2590,"48":2591,"96":2592},"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F6f896597904fee6c61fad2c52f37905247fd840c7364a239f5bbd4c9b8a9bd42?s=24&d=mm&r=g","https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F6f896597904fee6c61fad2c52f37905247fd840c7364a239f5bbd4c9b8a9bd42?s=48&d=mm&r=g","https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F6f896597904fee6c61fad2c52f37905247fd840c7364a239f5bbd4c9b8a9bd42?s=96&d=mm&r=g",[],{"self":2595,"collection":2599},[2596],{"href":94,"targetHints":2597},{"allow":2598},[35],[2600],{"href":2601},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fusers",[2603],{"id":2530,"date":2604,"slug":2605,"type":2606,"link":2607,"title":2608,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"acf":2610,"caption":2611,"alt_text":16,"media_type":2612,"mime_type":2613,"media_details":2614,"source_url":2644,"_links":2648},"2026-06-19T16:33:42","build-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc-jpg","attachment","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F2027-ibc-single-exit-height-limit-to-be-raised-to-four-stories\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc-jpg\u002F",{"rendered":2609},"build-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg",[],{"rendered":16},"image","image\u002Fwebp",{"width":2615,"height":2616,"file":2617,"filesize":2618,"sizes":2619,"image_meta":2645},1140,764,"2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg.webp",100346,{"medium":2620,"large":2625,"thumbnail":2631,"medium_large":2636,"full":2642},{"file":2621,"width":2622,"height":1767,"filesize":2623,"mime_type":2613,"source_url":2624},"build-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-300x201.webp",300,13938,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-300x201.webp",{"file":2626,"width":2627,"height":2628,"filesize":2629,"mime_type":2613,"source_url":2630},"build-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-1024x686.webp",1024,686,86850,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-1024x686.webp",{"file":2632,"width":2633,"height":2633,"filesize":2634,"mime_type":2613,"source_url":2635},"build-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-150x150.webp",150,6420,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg-150x150.webp",{"file":2637,"width":2638,"height":2639,"filesize":2640,"mime_type":2613,"source_url":2641},"build-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildl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Hidden Cost of Trash: Improving Waste Handling in New York City",{"rendered":2702,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>New York City has long struggled with waste collection and keeping its street clean, but a hidden issue has lurked behind the bags of trash strewn all over the sidewalks: costs. The Center for Building partnered with the Center for Zero Waste Design to calculate, for the first time, the costs to building owners of New York City’s particularly laborious method of waste collection and handling. At $75 per dwelling unit per month, waste handling costs to building owners – the costs of simply moving trash, recycling, and compost from building courtyards, basements, and waste rooms to the sidewalk, not including city collection – add up to more than 1 percent of the median household’s income. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcenterforzerowastedesign.org\u002Fall\u002Fadvocacy\u002Fhidden-cost-of-trash\u002F\">Our report\u003C\u002Fa> discusses the monetary and other costs of New York City’s system, and presents a containerized alternative that would improve housing affordability in the city and keep the streets cleaner. The report is also summarized in \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.vitalcitynyc.org\u002Farticles\u002Fnyc-trash-removal-cost-mamdani\">a piece for \u003Cem>Vital City\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":2704,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>New York City has long struggled with waste collection and keeping its street clean, but a hidden issue has lurked behind the bags of trash strewn all over the sidewalks: costs. The Center for Building partnered with the Center for Zero Waste Design to calculate, for the first time, the costs to building owners of […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[2707],3,[],[2710,2522,2538,26,2539,27,2711],"post-971","category-reports",{"credits":2713,"summary_group":2714,"report_group":2715},"\u003Cp>Co-authored by Stephen Smith of the Center for Building, and Clare Mifflin, Jennah Christina Jones, and Parker Limón of the Center for Zero Waste Design\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nMarch 2026\u003C\u002Fp>",{"sg_file":16,"sg_url":16,"sg_label":16},{"frg_file":16,"frg_url":2716,"frg_label":2717},"https:\u002F\u002Fcenterforzerowastedesign.org\u002Fall\u002Fadvocacy\u002Fhidden-cost-of-trash\u002F","Full Report",{"self":2719,"collection":2724,"about":2726,"author":2728,"replies":2730,"version-history":2733,"predecessor-version":2736,"wp:attachment":2740,"wp:term":2743,"curies":2748},[2720],{"href":2721,"targetHints":2722},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F971",{"allow":2723},[35],[2725],{"href":2551},[2727],{"href":2554},[2729],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[2731],{"embeddable":44,"href":2732},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=971",[2734],{"count":2707,"href":2735},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F971\u002Frevisions",[2737],{"id":2738,"href":2739},977,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F971\u002Frevisions\u002F977",[2741],{"href":2742},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=971",[2744,2746],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":2745},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=971",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":2747},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=971",[2749],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":2751,"wp:term":2762},[2752],{"id":51,"name":2586,"url":16,"description":16,"link":2587,"slug":2588,"avatar_urls":2753,"acf":2754,"_links":2755},{"24":2590,"48":2591,"96":2592},[],{"self":2756,"collection":2760},[2757],{"href":94,"targetHints":2758},{"allow":2759},[35],[2761],{"href":2601},[2763,2782],[2764],{"id":2707,"link":2765,"name":14,"slug":9,"taxonomy":2576,"acf":2766,"_links":2767},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fcategory\u002Freports\u002F",[],{"self":2768,"collection":2773,"about":2775,"wp:post_type":2777,"curies":2780},[2769],{"href":2770,"targetHints":2771},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories\u002F3",{"allow":2772},[35],[2774],{"href":2681},[2776],{"href":2684},[2778],{"href":2779},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts?categories=3",[2781],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[],{"id":2784,"date":2785,"date_gmt":2785,"guid":2786,"modified":2788,"modified_gmt":2788,"slug":2789,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":2790,"title":2791,"content":2793,"excerpt":2795,"author":51,"featured_media":2797,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":2531,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":2798,"categories":2799,"tags":2800,"class_list":2801,"acf":2803,"_links":2805,"_embedded":2841},960,"2026-02-25T02:23:45",{"rendered":2787},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?p=960","2026-02-25T02:32:13","the-benefits-of-bird-safe-glass-requirements-do-not-seem-to-be-worth-the-costs","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fthe-benefits-of-bird-safe-glass-requirements-do-not-seem-to-be-worth-the-costs\u002F",{"rendered":2792},"The benefits of bird-safe glass requirements do not seem to be worth the costs",{"rendered":2794,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>Bird-safe glass requirements are spreading across some of the highest-cost cities in North America. This year, Jersey City is again being asked to consider imposing a requirement, after one passed by its City Council was vetoed by former Mayor Steve Fulop late last year.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\u003Cp>The Center for Building reviewed the evidence in favor of bird-safe glass, and finds the benefits to be far outweighed by the costs. Estimates vary, but even proponents cite total construction cost increases of 0.38 percent. Meanwhile, the best available evidence suggests that only a handful of birds are killed by each building per year – even mid- and high-rise buildings. Given that each American eats around 24 birds per year for food, it is hard to justify spending tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars – rising to millions of dollars for some larger buildings – to save a few birds each year.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\u003Cp>More worrisome is that these requirements are only being considered in the densest, highest-cost cities in the United States. Imposing costs only on the more environmentally friendly, densest buildings in the country risks pushing settlement out to suburbs and smaller cities, where birds are probably more likely to be killed by buildings and outdoor cats.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\u003Cp>You can read our full letter to Jersey City lawmakers \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F02\u002FCfB-bird-safe-glass-letter-2026-02-24.pdf\">here\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":2796,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>Bird-safe glass requirements are spreading across some of the highest-cost cities in North America. This year, Jersey City is again being asked to consider imposing a requirement, after one passed by its City Council was vetoed by former Mayor Steve Fulop late last year. The Center for Building reviewed the evidence in favor of bird-safe […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",963,{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[19],[],[2802,2522,2538,26,2539,2540,27,2541],"post-960",{"author":2804,"related_articles":16,"image_on_hover":2797},"Stephen Jacob 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"date_gmt":2928,"guid":2929,"modified":2931,"modified_gmt":2931,"slug":2932,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":2933,"title":2934,"content":2936,"excerpt":2938,"author":51,"featured_media":2940,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":2531,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":2941,"categories":2942,"tags":2943,"class_list":2944,"acf":2946,"_links":2952,"_embedded":2988},621,"2025-03-15T15:15:57",{"rendered":2930},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?p=621","2025-08-30T14:15:53","small-single-stairway-apartment-buildings-have-strong-safety-record","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fsmall-single-stairway-apartment-buildings-have-strong-safety-record\u002F",{"rendered":2935},"Small Single-Stairway Apartment Buildings Have Strong Safety Record",{"rendered":2937,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Center for Building in North America \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.pewtrusts.org\u002Fen\u002Fresearch-and-analysis\u002Freports\u002F2025\u002F02\u002Fsmall-single-stairway-apartment-buildings-have-strong-safety-record\">coauthored a report\u003C\u002Fa> with the Pew Charitable Trusts on single-stair apartment buildings, with a focus on cost savings and the safety track record in New York City and Seattle. On the cost side, we found that a second stairway for a mid-rise apartment buildings costs roughly $200,000 to construct. On the life safety side, we combined NFIRS data and reports of home fire fatalities from the U.S. Fire Administration, which we joined with property-level data in New York City, through which we found no evidence of any fire fatality attributable to the lack of a second exit in any of the more than 4,000 single-stair apartment buildings of at least four stories in the city. Similarly, we manually reviewed records of fatal fires in Seattle and found the same.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":2939,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>The Center for Building in North America coauthored a report with the Pew Charitable Trusts on single-stair apartment buildings, with a focus on cost savings and the safety track record in New York City and Seattle. On the cost side, we found that a second stairway for a mid-rise apartment buildings costs roughly $200,000 to […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",624,{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[2707],[],[2945,2522,2538,26,2539,2540,27,2711],"post-621",{"credits":2947,"summary_group":2948,"report_group":2951},"\u003Cp>Co-authored by Stephen Smith and Sandip Trivedi of the Center for Building, and Seva Rodnyansky, Alex Horowitz, Liz Clifford, and Dennis Su of The Pew Charitable Trusts \u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nFebruary 2025\u003C\u002Fp>",{"sg_file":16,"sg_url":2949,"sg_label":2950},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.pewtrusts.org\u002Fen\u002Fresearch-and-analysis\u002Freports\u002F2025\u002F02\u002Fsmall-single-stairway-apartment-buildings-have-strong-safety-record","FULL REPORT",{"frg_file":16,"frg_url":16,"frg_label":16},{"self":2953,"collection":2958,"about":2960,"author":2962,"replies":2964,"version-history":2967,"predecessor-version":2971,"wp:featuredmedia":2975,"wp:attachment":2978,"wp:term":2981,"curies":2986},[2954],{"href":2955,"targetHints":2956},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F621",{"allow":2957},[35],[2959],{"href":2551},[2961],{"href":2554},[2963],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[2965],{"embeddable":44,"href":2966},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=621",[2968],{"count":2969,"href":2970},16,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F621\u002Frevisions",[2972],{"id":2973,"href":2974},791,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F621\u002Frevisions\u002F791",[2976],{"embeddable":44,"href":2977},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia\u002F624",[2979],{"href":2980},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=621",[2982,2984],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":2983},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=621",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":2985},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=621",[2987],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":2989,"wp:featuredmedia":3000,"wp:term":3062},[2990],{"id":51,"name":2586,"url":16,"description":16,"link":2587,"slug":2588,"avatar_urls":2991,"acf":2992,"_links":2993},{"24":2590,"48":2591,"96":2592},[],{"self":2994,"collection":2998},[2995],{"href":94,"targetHints":2996},{"allow":2997},[35],[2999],{"href":2601},[3001],{"id":2940,"date":3002,"slug":3003,"type":2606,"link":3004,"title":3005,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"acf":3007,"caption":3008,"alt_text":16,"media_type":2612,"mime_type":2861,"media_details":3009,"source_url":3041,"_links":3044},"2025-03-05T15:09:56","16x9_m","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fsmall-single-stairway-apartment-buildings-have-strong-safety-record\u002F16x9_m\u002F",{"rendered":3006},"16x9_M",[],{"rendered":16},{"width":3010,"height":2627,"file":3011,"filesize":3012,"sizes":3013,"image_meta":3042},1820,"2025\u002F03\u002F16x9_M.jpg",365749,{"medium":3014,"large":3019,"thumbnail":3024,"medium_large":3028,"1536x1536":3033,"full":3039},{"file":3015,"width":2622,"height":3016,"filesize":3017,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3018},"16x9_M-300x169.jpg",169,12628,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F03\u002F16x9_M-300x169.jpg",{"file":3020,"width":2627,"height":3021,"filesize":3022,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3023},"16x9_M-1024x576.jpg",576,146670,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F03\u002F16x9_M-1024x576.jpg",{"file":3025,"width":2633,"height":2633,"filesize":3026,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3027},"16x9_M-150x150.jpg",6424,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F03\u002F16x9_M-150x150.jpg",{"file":3029,"width":2638,"height":3030,"filesize":3031,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3032},"16x9_M-768x432.jpg",432,80587,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F03\u002F16x9_M-768x432.jpg",{"file":3034,"width":3035,"height":3036,"filesize":3037,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3038},"16x9_M-1536x864.jpg",1536,864,310206,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F03\u002F16x9_M-1536x864.jpg",{"file":3040,"width":3010,"height":2627,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3041},"16x9_M.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F03\u002F16x9_M.jpg",{"aperture":2646,"credit":16,"camera":16,"caption":16,"created_timestamp":2646,"copyright":16,"focal_length":2646,"iso":2646,"shutter_speed":2646,"title":16,"orientation":2646,"keywords":3043},[],{"self":3045,"collection":3049,"about":3051,"author":3053,"replies":3055,"wp:attached-to":3058,"curies":3060},[3046],{"href":2977,"targetHints":3047},{"allow":3048},[35],[3050],{"href":2655},[3052],{"href":2658},[3054],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[3056],{"embeddable":44,"href":3057},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=624",[3059],{"embeddable":44,"post_type":2522,"id":2927,"href":2955},[3061],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[3063,3079],[3064],{"id":2707,"link":2765,"name":14,"slug":9,"taxonomy":2576,"acf":3065,"_links":3066},[],{"self":3067,"collection":3071,"about":3073,"wp:post_type":3075,"curies":3077},[3068],{"href":2770,"targetHints":3069},{"allow":3070},[35],[3072],{"href":2681},[3074],{"href":2684},[3076],{"href":2779},[3078],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[],{"id":51,"date":3081,"date_gmt":3081,"guid":3082,"modified":3084,"modified_gmt":3084,"slug":1101,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":3085,"title":3086,"content":3087,"excerpt":3089,"author":51,"featured_media":3091,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":21,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":3092,"categories":3093,"tags":3094,"class_list":3095,"acf":3097,"_links":3104,"_embedded":3140},"2024-12-12T06:25:34",{"rendered":3083},"http:\u002F\u002Flbo.bab.mytemp.website\u002F?p=1","2026-02-22T16:10:36","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Felevators\u002F",{"rendered":242},{"rendered":3088,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">We approach the issue of high elevator costs and low availability in North America from a comparative perspective, drawing on experiences in Europe in particular to examine the issue through the lenses of affordability, access, accessibility, codes and standards, and labor. We present the first public comparison between costs in the United States and our high-income peers in Europe (both for installations and ongoing items like maintenance), as well as the most up-to-date comparison of global elevator stocks. We look at the cost drivers, in three main categories – cabin sizes, labor productivity, and technical codes and standards unrelated to cabin size. We look at a few different cases of how other countries approach various issues related to elevators, from how China retrofits elevators into occupied walk-up apartment buildings (common in Europe too, but almost unheard of project in the U.S. and Canada) to France’s recent tightening of building accessibility requirements to Poland’s efforts to improve technical and vocational education to meet the labor needs of the elevator industry in the wake of its accession to the European Union.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cbr>Finally, we present practical advice to policymakers in the U.S. and Canada who want to bring elevator costs down to earth. The report’s author is available to answer questions from reporters, industry professionals, policymakers, or anybody else at \u003Ca href=\"mailto:stephen@centerforbuilding.org\">stephen@centerforbuilding.org\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":3090,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>We approach the issue of high elevator costs and low availability in North America from a comparative perspective, drawing on experiences in Europe in particular to examine the issue through the lenses of affordability, access, accessibility, codes and standards, and labor…\u003C\u002Fp>\n",175,{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[2707],[],[3096,2522,2538,26,2539,2540,27,2711],"post-1",{"credits":3098,"summary_group":3099,"report_group":3102},"\u003Cp>Authored by Stephen Smith\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nFirst edition, May 2024\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Research help by\u003Cbr data-v-inspector=\"pages\u002Freports.vue:129:41\" \u002F>\r\nKuba Snopek and Petro Vladimirov\u003Cbr data-v-inspector=\"pages\u002Freports.vue:129:77\" \u002F>\r\n(Direction) in Poland,\u003Cbr data-v-inspector=\"pages\u002Freports.vue:129:103\" \u002F>\r\nGeli Tadonki in France\u003Cbr data-v-inspector=\"pages\u002Freports.vue:130:47\" \u002F>\r\nand Moon Hoon in South Korea.\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Designed by \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.studiofolder.it\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Studio Folder\u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"sg_file":3100,"sg_url":16,"sg_label":3101},408,"SUMMARY",{"frg_file":3103,"frg_url":16,"frg_label":2950},407,{"self":3105,"collection":3110,"about":3112,"author":3114,"replies":3116,"version-history":3119,"predecessor-version":3123,"wp:featuredmedia":3127,"wp:attachment":3130,"wp:term":3133,"curies":3138},[3106],{"href":3107,"targetHints":3108},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F1",{"allow":3109},[35],[3111],{"href":2551},[3113],{"href":2554},[3115],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[3117],{"embeddable":44,"href":3118},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=1",[3120],{"count":3121,"href":3122},24,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F1\u002Frevisions",[3124],{"id":3125,"href":3126},662,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F1\u002Frevisions\u002F662",[3128],{"embeddable":44,"href":3129},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia\u002F175",[3131],{"href":3132},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=1",[3134,3136],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":3135},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=1",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":3137},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=1",[3139],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":3141,"replies":3152,"wp:featuredmedia":3178,"wp:term":3236},[3142],{"id":51,"name":2586,"url":16,"description":16,"link":2587,"slug":2588,"avatar_urls":3143,"acf":3144,"_links":3145},{"24":2590,"48":2591,"96":2592},[],{"self":3146,"collection":3150},[3147],{"href":94,"targetHints":3148},{"allow":3149},[35],[3151],{"href":2601},[3153],[3154],{"id":51,"parent":20,"author":20,"author_name":3155,"author_url":3156,"date":3157,"content":3158,"link":3160,"type":3161,"author_avatar_urls":3162,"acf":3166,"_links":3167},"A WordPress Commenter","https:\u002F\u002Fwordpress.org\u002F","2024-12-01T13:21:31",{"rendered":3159},"\u003Cp>Hi, this is a comment.\u003Cbr \u002F>\nTo get started with moderating, editing, and deleting comments, please visit the Comments screen in the dashboard.\u003Cbr \u002F>\nCommenter avatars come from \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fgravatar.com\u002F\">Gravatar\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\n","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Felevators\u002F#comment-1","comment",{"24":3163,"48":3164,"96":3165},"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F8e1606e6fba450a9362af43874c1b2dfad34c782e33d0a51e1b46c18a2a567dd?s=24&d=mm&r=g","https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F8e1606e6fba450a9362af43874c1b2dfad34c782e33d0a51e1b46c18a2a567dd?s=48&d=mm&r=g","https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F8e1606e6fba450a9362af43874c1b2dfad34c782e33d0a51e1b46c18a2a567dd?s=96&d=mm&r=g",[],{"self":3168,"collection":3173,"up":3176},[3169],{"href":3170,"targetHints":3171},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments\u002F1",{"allow":3172},[35],[3174],{"href":3175},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments",[3177],{"embeddable":44,"post_type":2522,"href":3107},[3179],{"id":3091,"date":3180,"slug":3181,"type":2606,"link":3182,"title":3183,"author":19,"featured_media":20,"acf":3185,"caption":3186,"alt_text":16,"media_type":2612,"mime_type":3188,"media_details":3189,"source_url":3215,"_links":3218},"2024-12-14T21:37:58","elevators_cover-2","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Felevators\u002Felevators_cover-2\u002F",{"rendered":3184},"Elevators_cover 2",[],{"rendered":3187},"\u003Cp>A caption for a third image.\u003C\u002Fp>\n","image\u002Fpng",{"width":3190,"height":3191,"file":3192,"filesize":3193,"sizes":3194,"image_meta":3216},905,1280,"2024\u002F12\u002FElevators_cover-2.png",20120,{"medium":3195,"large":3199,"thumbnail":3204,"medium_large":3208,"full":3213},{"file":3196,"width":1172,"height":2622,"filesize":3197,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":3198},"Elevators_cover-2-212x300.png",1718,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F12\u002FElevators_cover-2-212x300.png",{"file":3200,"width":3201,"height":2627,"filesize":3202,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":3203},"Elevators_cover-2-724x1024.png",724,15851,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F12\u002FElevators_cover-2-724x1024.png",{"file":3205,"width":2633,"height":2633,"filesize":3206,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":3207},"Elevators_cover-2-150x150.png",261,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F12\u002FElevators_cover-2-150x150.png",{"file":3209,"width":2638,"height":3210,"filesize":3211,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":3212},"Elevators_cover-2-768x1086.png",1086,17069,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F12\u002FElevators_cover-2-768x1086.png",{"file":3214,"width":3190,"height":3191,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":3215},"Elevators_cover-2.png","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F12\u002FElevators_cover-2.png",{"aperture":2646,"credit":16,"camera":16,"caption":16,"created_timestamp":2646,"copyright":16,"focal_length":2646,"iso":2646,"shutter_speed":2646,"title":16,"orientation":2646,"keywords":3217},[],{"self":3219,"collection":3223,"about":3225,"author":3227,"replies":3229,"wp:attached-to":3232,"curies":3234},[3220],{"href":3129,"targetHints":3221},{"allow":3222},[35],[3224],{"href":2655},[3226],{"href":2658},[3228],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[3230],{"embeddable":44,"href":3231},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=175",[3233],{"embeddable":44,"post_type":2522,"id":51,"href":3107},[3235],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[3237,3253],[3238],{"id":2707,"link":2765,"name":14,"slug":9,"taxonomy":2576,"acf":3239,"_links":3240},[],{"self":3241,"collection":3245,"about":3247,"wp:post_type":3249,"curies":3251},[3242],{"href":2770,"targetHints":3243},{"allow":3244},[35],[3246],{"href":2681},[3248],{"href":2684},[3250],{"href":2779},[3252],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[],{"id":3255,"date":3256,"date_gmt":3256,"guid":3257,"modified":3259,"modified_gmt":3259,"slug":3260,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":3261,"title":3262,"content":3264,"excerpt":3266,"author":19,"featured_media":3268,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":2531,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":3269,"categories":3270,"tags":3271,"class_list":3272,"acf":3275,"_links":3280,"_embedded":3321},197,"2024-09-28T17:01:15",{"rendered":3258},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?p=197","2025-02-20T09:37:15","nfpa-single-stair-symposium","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fnfpa-single-stair-symposium\u002F",{"rendered":3263},"NFPA’s single-stair symposium",{"rendered":3265,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Over the past few years, the debate over single-stair apartment buildings in the United States and Canada has been heating up. Jurisdictions from coast to coast have been considering changes to their building codes. The Center for Building in North America is tracking legislation or code change proposals in (as of this writing) \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fsinglestair-tracker\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">18 different jurisdictions\u003C\u002Fa> across the U.S. and Canada, with more happening beneath the radar. Earlier this month, British Columbia \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Faibc.ca\u002F2024\u002F09\u002Fbc-building-code-update-enabling-single-exit-stair-buildings-2\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">formally amended its building code\u003C\u002Fa> to allow single-stair buildings up to six stories, up from the current two-story allowance. This year, we are a co-proponent on the E24-24 proposal at the International Code Council to change the International Building Code, the main model code for the United States, to allow single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories (\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fblog\u002Fsingle-stair-code-proposal-submitted-to-the-i-codes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">here\u003C\u002Fa> was our initial proposal for the spring hearings, and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fs\u002FE24-24-CAH2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">here\u003C\u002Fa> is our updated one for the fall).\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The issue has stirred the passions of urbanists, architects, and others who are excited about the possibility of more viable infill housing and more efficient family-sized apartments, and has provoked an equal amount of opposition from \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.wildapricot.com\u002F201348\u002Fresources\u002FDocuments\u002F2024%20Newsletters\u002FSingle-Exit%20Stairway%20Position%202_28_24%20Final.pdf?version=1711049502000&Policy=eyJTdGF0ZW1lbnQiOiBbeyJSZXNvdXJjZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vY2RuLndpbGRhcHJpY290LmNvbS8yMDEzNDgvcmVzb3VyY2VzL0RvY3VtZW50cy8yMDI0JTIwTmV3c2xldHRlcnMvU2luZ2xlLUV4aXQlMjBTdGFpcndheSUyMFBvc2l0aW9uJTIwMl8yOF8yNCUyMEZpbmFsLnBkZj92ZXJzaW9uPTE3MTEwNDk1MDIwMDAiLCJDb25kaXRpb24iOnsiRGF0ZUxlc3NUaGFuIjp7IkFXUzpFcG9jaFRpbWUiOjE3MjczODAzMjF9LCJJcEFkZHJlc3MiOnsiQVdTOlNvdXJjZUlwIjoiMC4wLjAuMC8wIn19fV19&Signature=gpd2G1~vTAn9F8uG0qVa26Cqy2U~049IIjc5J8LIt93asi3GVYYz0xRRlM2hUDBjfYYX0EV-WE42ZCoBrFdx3b8APHuyPT-27mKLjjK2Oc7LYHFtec4pmbRGjsJ0elajW0vg4JvbXHyDfqmryO~AAQJEzcL-23CogQc3LfaorplbCDi5fhM-NIrJV7Lv51Mku7hdrD6YU0GuotYBqhN7hOgPBc~LlIqi~jzYx0uD97deCYzfFpRd9ds1g0Juyh~GUkvk5rcD3tpTDtIt32i0DEUZNXbfjrw8Spiz4Q2giuPmtDsGmGm5xZs5I8gcgnVb2xyIqeLCTtmdi~VlbvAv9Q__&Key-Pair-Id=K27MGQSHTHAGGF\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">fire\u003C\u002Fa> \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.iafc.org\u002Fabout-iafc\u002Fpositions\u002Fposition\u002Freducing-stairs-in-residential-buildings-higher-than-three-stories\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">service\u003C\u002Fa> \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.iaff.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F06\u002FJointStatement.pdf\">organizations\u003C\u002Fa>, with the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) writing about the conflict in the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002Fnews-blogs-and-articles\u002Fnfpa-journal\u002F2024\u002F08\u002F06\u002Fthe-single-exit-stairwell-debate\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">cover story\u003C\u002Fa> to their in-house magazine in August.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Earlier this month, NFPA brought together supporters, opponents, policymakers, and others in the fire protection community for a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002FEvents\u002FSingle-Exit-Stair-Symposium\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">two-day symposium on the issue\u003C\u002Fa> at their headquarters in Quincy, Massachusetts. The Center for Building’s executive director, Stephen Smith, presented the case that these buildings can be built safely up to at least six stories, and you can find his presentation \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdocs.google.com\u002Fpresentation\u002Fd\u002F1cCoonXrAyXmnjMbiLDQZqoYp6L91GRNwgfAcTu271HQ\u002Fedit?usp=sharing\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">here\u003C\u002Fa>, with the narration written in the speaker notes as presented. Anybody is free to use any content within for noncommercial uses. For other uses or questions about the presentation, please \u003Ca href=\"mailto:stephen@centerforbuilding.org?\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">get in touch\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">NFPA has also published \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002Fforms\u002Fsingle-exit-stair-symposium-report\">notes from the symposium\u003C\u002Fa>, with summaries of all of the presentations.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":3267,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>Over the past few years, the debate over single-stair apartment buildings in the United States and Canada has been heating up. Jurisdictions from coast to coast have been considering changes to their building codes. The Center for Building in North America is tracking legislation or code change proposals in (as of this writing) 18 different […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",433,{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[19],[2822],[3273,2522,2538,26,2539,2540,27,2541,3274],"post-197","tag-stairs",{"author":184,"related_articles":3276,"image_on_hover":3279},[3277,3278],195,162,437,{"self":3281,"collection":3286,"about":3288,"author":3290,"replies":3292,"version-history":3295,"predecessor-version":3299,"acf:post":3303,"wp:featuredmedia":3308,"wp:attachment":3311,"wp:term":3314,"curies":3319},[3282],{"href":3283,"targetHints":3284},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F197",{"allow":3285},[35],[3287],{"href":2551},[3289],{"href":2554},[3291],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[3293],{"embeddable":44,"href":3294},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=197",[3296],{"count":3297,"href":3298},15,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F197\u002Frevisions",[3300],{"id":3301,"href":3302},438,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F197\u002Frevisions\u002F438",[3304,3306],{"embeddable":44,"href":3305},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F162",{"embeddable":44,"href":3307},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F195",[3309],{"embeddable":44,"href":3310},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia\u002F433",[3312],{"href":3313},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=197",[3315,3317],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":3316},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=197",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":3318},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=197",[3320],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":3322,"acf:post":3339,"wp:featuredmedia":3420,"wp:term":3468},[3323],{"id":19,"name":3324,"url":16,"description":16,"link":3325,"slug":3326,"avatar_urls":3327,"acf":3331,"_links":3332},"Carlo-Schlatter","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fauthor\u002Fcarlo-schlatter\u002F","carlo-schlatter",{"24":3328,"48":3329,"96":3330},"https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F283b2b6ab635b2ae24fd89350b5fe8bf866d42e9b122a7394a1749f856e383fc?s=24&d=mm&r=g","https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F283b2b6ab635b2ae24fd89350b5fe8bf866d42e9b122a7394a1749f856e383fc?s=48&d=mm&r=g","https:\u002F\u002Fsecure.gravatar.com\u002Favatar\u002F283b2b6ab635b2ae24fd89350b5fe8bf866d42e9b122a7394a1749f856e383fc?s=96&d=mm&r=g",[],{"self":3333,"collection":3337},[3334],{"href":45,"targetHints":3335},{"allow":3336},[35],[3338],{"href":2601},[3340,3380],{"id":3278,"date":3341,"slug":3342,"type":2522,"link":3343,"title":3344,"excerpt":3346,"author":19,"featured_media":20,"acf":3348,"_links":3349},"2023-03-04T21:53:30","our-single-stair","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Four-single-stair\u002F",{"rendered":3345},"Our single-stair I-Codes proposal",{"rendered":3347,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>In April 2024, building code officials and others will meet in Orlando for the first hearing to discuss proposed changes to the International Code Council’s 2027 I-Codes, or the model building codes which are eventually adopted into law throughout the United States. As the Center for Building’s executive director, I have joined together with Scott Brody […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"author":184,"related_articles":457,"image_on_hover":457},{"self":3350,"collection":3354,"about":3356,"author":3358,"replies":3360,"version-history":3363,"predecessor-version":3366,"wp:attachment":3370,"wp:term":3373,"curies":3378},[3351],{"href":3305,"targetHints":3352},{"allow":3353},[35],[3355],{"href":2551},[3357],{"href":2554},[3359],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[3361],{"embeddable":44,"href":3362},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=162",[3364],{"count":112,"href":3365},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F162\u002Frevisions",[3367],{"id":3368,"href":3369},270,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F162\u002Frevisions\u002F270",[3371],{"href":3372},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=162",[3374,3376],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":3375},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=162",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":3377},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=162",[3379],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":3277,"date":3381,"slug":3382,"type":2522,"link":3383,"title":3384,"excerpt":3386,"author":19,"featured_media":20,"acf":3388,"_links":3389},"2024-03-26T16:48:37","hud-cityscape-publishes-our-article","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fhud-cityscape-publishes-our-article\u002F",{"rendered":3385},"HUD’s Cityscape publishes our article on single-stair apartment buildings",{"rendered":3387,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>Today, the Untied States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) published the first issue of the year of its Cityscape journal. HUD’s journals serve as a sounding board for policies of interest to the federal or other levels of government. One of the article was coauthored by myself and Ed Mendoza, at the Livable […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"author":184,"related_articles":16,"image_on_hover":16},{"self":3390,"collection":3394,"about":3396,"author":3398,"replies":3400,"version-history":3403,"predecessor-version":3406,"wp:attachment":3410,"wp:term":3413,"curies":3418},[3391],{"href":3307,"targetHints":3392},{"allow":3393},[35],[3395],{"href":2551},[3397],{"href":2554},[3399],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[3401],{"embeddable":44,"href":3402},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=195",[3404],{"count":19,"href":3405},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F195\u002Frevisions",[3407],{"id":3408,"href":3409},504,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F195\u002Frevisions\u002F504",[3411],{"href":3412},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=195",[3414,3416],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":3415},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=195",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":3417},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=195",[3419],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[3421],{"id":3268,"date":3422,"slug":3423,"type":2606,"link":3424,"title":3425,"author":2707,"featured_media":20,"acf":3427,"caption":3428,"alt_text":16,"media_type":2612,"mime_type":2861,"media_details":3429,"source_url":3446,"_links":3449},"2025-01-21T10:09:43","nfpa_cover","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fnfpa-single-stair-symposium\u002Fnfpa_cover\u002F",{"rendered":3426},"NFPA_cover",[],{"rendered":16},{"width":3430,"height":3431,"file":3432,"filesize":3433,"sizes":3434,"image_meta":3447},585,783,"2024\u002F09\u002FNFPA_cover.jpg",159434,{"medium":3435,"thumbnail":3440,"full":3444},{"file":3436,"width":3437,"height":2622,"filesize":3438,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3439},"NFPA_cover-224x300.jpg",224,11962,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F09\u002FNFPA_cover-224x300.jpg",{"file":3441,"width":2633,"height":2633,"filesize":3442,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3443},"NFPA_cover-150x150.jpg",5558,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F09\u002FNFPA_cover-150x150.jpg",{"file":3445,"width":3430,"height":3431,"mime_type":2861,"source_url":3446},"NFPA_cover.jpg","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024\u002F09\u002FNFPA_cover.jpg",{"aperture":2646,"credit":16,"camera":16,"caption":16,"created_timestamp":2646,"copyright":16,"focal_length":2646,"iso":2646,"shutter_speed":2646,"title":16,"orientation":2646,"keywords":3448},[],{"self":3450,"collection":3454,"about":3456,"author":3458,"replies":3461,"wp:attached-to":3464,"curies":3466},[3451],{"href":3310,"targetHints":3452},{"allow":3453},[35],[3455],{"href":2655},[3457],{"href":2658},[3459],{"embeddable":44,"href":3460},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fusers\u002F3",[3462],{"embeddable":44,"href":3463},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=433",[3465],{"embeddable":44,"post_type":2522,"id":3255,"href":3283},[3467],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[3469,3485],[3470],{"id":19,"link":2671,"name":73,"slug":70,"taxonomy":2576,"acf":3471,"_links":3472},[],{"self":3473,"collection":3477,"about":3479,"wp:post_type":3481,"curies":3483},[3474],{"href":2676,"targetHints":3475},{"allow":3476},[35],[3478],{"href":2681},[3480],{"href":2684},[3482],{"href":2687},[3484],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[3486],{"id":2822,"link":3487,"name":3488,"slug":3489,"taxonomy":2579,"_links":3490},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftag\u002Fstairs\u002F","Stairs","stairs",{"self":3491,"collection":3496,"about":3499,"wp:post_type":3502,"curies":3505},[3492],{"href":3493,"targetHints":3494},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags\u002F5",{"allow":3495},[35],[3497],{"href":3498},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags",[3500],{"href":3501},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftaxonomies\u002Fpost_tag",[3503],{"href":3504},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts?tags=5",[3506],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":3277,"date":3381,"date_gmt":3381,"guid":3508,"modified":3510,"modified_gmt":3510,"slug":3382,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":3383,"title":3511,"content":3512,"excerpt":3514,"author":19,"featured_media":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":2531,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":3515,"categories":3516,"tags":3517,"class_list":3518,"acf":3520,"_links":3521,"_embedded":3545},{"rendered":3509},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?p=195","2025-02-20T09:37:34",{"rendered":3385},{"rendered":3513,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image\" id=\"yui_3_17_2_1_1734433728193_67\">\u003Cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.squarespace-cdn.com\u002Fcontent\u002Fv1\u002F634dfe3176afcc36f569d83d\u002Fa2229151-7040-4c7a-8599-879191e55c65\u002F101+Storms+drawing.png\" alt=\"\"\u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Today, the Untied States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) published the first issue of the year of its \u003Cem>Cityscape\u003C\u002Fem> journal. HUD’s journals serve as a sounding board for policies of interest to the federal or other levels of government. One of the article was coauthored by myself and Ed Mendoza, at the Livable Communities Initiative, on the past, present, and future of single-stair “point access block” apartment buildings in North America and abroad. You can read the article \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.huduser.gov\u002Fportal\u002Fperiodicals\u002Fcityscape\u002Fvol26num1\u002Fch25.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">here\u003C\u002Fa>, and find others in the same issue \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.huduser.gov\u002Fportal\u002Fperiodicals\u002Fcityscape\u002Fvol26num1\u002Findex.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">here\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":3387,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[19],[],[3519,2522,2538,26,2539,27,2541],"post-195",{"author":184,"related_articles":16,"image_on_hover":16},{"self":3522,"collection":3526,"about":3528,"author":3530,"replies":3532,"version-history":3534,"predecessor-version":3536,"wp:attachment":3538,"wp:term":3540,"curies":3543},[3523],{"href":3307,"targetHints":3524},{"allow":3525},[35],[3527],{"href":2551},[3529],{"href":2554},[3531],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[3533],{"embeddable":44,"href":3402},[3535],{"count":19,"href":3405},[3537],{"id":3408,"href":3409},[3539],{"href":3412},[3541,3542],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":3415},{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":3417},[3544],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":3546,"wp:term":3557},[3547],{"id":19,"name":3324,"url":16,"description":16,"link":3325,"slug":3326,"avatar_urls":3548,"acf":3549,"_links":3550},{"24":3328,"48":3329,"96":3330},[],{"self":3551,"collection":3555},[3552],{"href":45,"targetHints":3553},{"allow":3554},[35],[3556],{"href":2601},[3558,3574],[3559],{"id":19,"link":2671,"name":73,"slug":70,"taxonomy":2576,"acf":3560,"_links":3561},[],{"self":3562,"collection":3566,"about":3568,"wp:post_type":3570,"curies":3572},[3563],{"href":2676,"targetHints":3564},{"allow":3565},[35],[3567],{"href":2681},[3569],{"href":2684},[3571],{"href":2687},[3573],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[],{"id":3576,"date":3577,"date_gmt":3577,"guid":3578,"modified":3580,"modified_gmt":3580,"slug":3581,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":3582,"title":3583,"content":3585,"excerpt":3587,"author":19,"featured_media":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":2531,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":3589,"categories":3590,"tags":3591,"class_list":3592,"acf":3594,"_links":3595,"_embedded":3627},164,"2023-05-04T21:56:18",{"rendered":3579},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?p=164","2025-02-24T21:59:49","why-we-cant-build","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwhy-we-cant-build\u002F",{"rendered":3584},"Why we can’t build family-sized apartments in North America",{"rendered":3586,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In February, I, along with real estate developer Bobby Fijan, went on the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.bloomberg.com\u002Fnews\u002Farticles\u002F2023-02-27\u002Fwhy-are-there-no-apartments-for-families-in-the-city-who-builds-what-and-why\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Bloomberg podcast \u003Cem>Odd Lots\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fa> to talk about why it’s so hard to find a family-sized apartment in the United States. I argued that North American zoning and building codes work together to drive up the size of multi-bedroom apartments in particular, putting them financially out of reach for many parents raising children. In other words, even if developers built more two-, three-, and four-bedroom apartments, you probably wouldn’t be able to afford one, because they would have to be so much larger than units with the same number of bedroom in Europe or Asia.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is fundamentally an issue of space, and it’s hard to convey over a podcast. So I worked with architect and Center for Building board member Michael Eliason – founder of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.larchlab.com\u002F\">Larch Lab\u003C\u002Fa>, which introduced many North Americans to the concept of \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.larchlab.com\u002Fcity-of-vancouver-report-on-point-access-blocks\u002F\">point access block apartment buildings\u003C\u002Fa> – to visualize the problem. He drew some floor plans for apartments built to North American codes, and then a few built to more European codes. The plans show how, as a North American architect tries to add bedrooms, the size – and therefore cost – of the apartment balloons faster than it would in a point access block design in Europe or Asia.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-default is-cropped wp-block-gallery-1 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex\">\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" data-id=\"584\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_all-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-584\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_all-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_all-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_all-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_all-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_all-2048x1151.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">American double-loaded corridor\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" data-id=\"585\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_all-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-585\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_all-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_all-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_all-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_all-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_all-2048x1152.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">German-style “Vierspänner” (four units  per core, with vertical circulation on an outer façade)\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" data-id=\"586\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_all-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-586\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_all-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_all-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_all-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_all-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_all-2048x1151.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">German-style “Zweispänner” (two units  per core, with vertical circulation on an outer façade)\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In North America, apartments are typically laid out off of a double-loaded corridor – lots of apartments arrayed on either side of a single long hallway, like in a hotel. Each apartment generally has windows facing only one direction, with the opposite wall up against the hallway, and the other two sides up against other units in the same building. As the site grows, the central corridor is simply stretched out, and more apartments are added off of an even longer hallway. In the case of the typical design that we’re using to illustrate this design (first image, showing a segment of a much larger building), each hallway has 29 feet of space on either side, so each apartment is 29 feet in depth, with windows only on one side.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">By contrast, in the rest of the world, including in Europe, most new buildings are designed as what Mike Eliason calls point access blocks (second and third plans above) – anywhere between one and generally around six apartments per floor arrayed around a central staircase and, usually, an elevator. Apartments can have windows on opposite sides, because the hallway and other common area take up just a small space near the center of the building. If the site is bigger, this design is repeated a number of times (as in the third image above).\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One major consequence of this difference in design is that the North American double-loaded corridor buildings are much worse at providing family-sized units. To illustrate the point, we’ll go through the different sized apartments one by one, and compare the floor area and design. You’ll notice that the American plans have significantly more floor area for the same number of bedrooms, and have much more lightless interior space up against the common corridor to fill – inevitably with bathrooms, closets, and larger kitchens. For families – which tend to be inherently more financially strapped than singles, childless couples, or roommates, since they’re likely to have kids, older adults, and even parents who aren’t working in the household – the cost of all this extra square footage can be too much to bear. The path of least resistance for home seekers is simply to move to the suburbs and buy or rent a freestanding single-family house, where building codes are much looser and zoning affords developers massive tracts of land, so none of this is an issue.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>Studio apartments\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fh3>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-default is-cropped wp-block-gallery-2 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex\">\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"820\" data-id=\"589\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_0BR1BA-1024x820.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-589\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_0BR1BA-1024x820.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_0BR1BA-300x240.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_0BR1BA-768x615.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_0BR1BA-1536x1229.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_0BR1BA-2048x1639.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"590\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_0BR1BA-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-590\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_0BR1BA-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_0BR1BA-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_0BR1BA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_0BR1BA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_0BR1BA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_0BR1BA.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"591\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_0BR-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-591\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_0BR-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_0BR-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_0BR-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_0BR-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_0BR-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_0BR.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\u003Cfigcaption class=\"blocks-gallery-caption wp-element-caption\">Studio apartments\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Starting with a studio, the American design (first unit) can be slightly larger than a German one (second unit), or significantly bigger (third unit). The 280-sq. ft. micro-studio could not realistically be recreated with a double-loaded corridor design with apartments that are 29 feet deep, since it would require the unit to be less than 10 ft. wide along the windowed wall, making it quite dark.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>One-bedroom apartments\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fh3>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-default is-cropped wp-block-gallery-3 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex\">\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"820\" data-id=\"598\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_1BR1BA-1024x820.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-598\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_1BR1BA-1024x820.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_1BR1BA-300x240.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_1BR1BA-768x615.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_1BR1BA-1536x1229.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_1BR1BA-2048x1639.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"599\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_1BR1BA-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-599\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_1BR1BA-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_1BR1BA-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_1BR1BA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_1BR1BA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_1BR1BA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_1BR1BA.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"600\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_1BR1BA-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-600\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_1BR1BA-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_1BR1BA-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_1BR1BA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_1BR1BA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_1BR1BA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_1BR1BA.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The advantages of the shallower European floor plans start to become more apparent with one-bedroom apartments. They allow for a somewhat less deep version of the single-aspect American design (first unit) that’s about 7.5 percent smaller (second unit), or a floor-through design that consumes 21.5 percent fewer square feet (third unit), while also moving the bedroom to the other side of the building, giving the living room and bedroom different sun and noise exposures.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>Two-bedroom apartments\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fh3>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-default is-cropped wp-block-gallery-4 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex\">\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"820\" data-id=\"601\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_2BR2BA-1024x820.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-601\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_2BR2BA-1024x820.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_2BR2BA-300x240.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_2BR2BA-768x615.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_2BR2BA-1536x1229.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_2BR2BA-2048x1639.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"602\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_2BR1BA-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-602\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_2BR1BA-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_2BR1BA-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_2BR1BA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_2BR1BA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_2BR1BA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_2BR1BA.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"603\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_2BR1.5BA-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-603\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_2BR1.5BA-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_2BR1.5BA-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_2BR1.5BA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_2BR1.5BA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_2BR1.5BA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_2BR1.5BA.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At two bedrooms, the flexibility of German layouts becomes obvious. The American plan (first unit) is so deep that each bedroom must necessarily come with its own bathroom (with extra vanity), plus huge walk-in closets. The double vanity bathroom and walk-in closet become marketing points and drive cost and rent up, but are in many cases driven by the need to fill space that can’t be filled with extra living area, and not necessarily the developer and tenants’ desire to spend scarce resources on them. The cost of construction generally rises in lockstep with square footage, but bathrooms and kitchens are particularly expensive given the plumbing and fixtures involved, driving up the cost of production and operations for the standard North American in-line two-bed, two-bath apartment. The American layout also suffers from a “bowling alley” layout, with a narrow common area squeezed between the two bedrooms, offering poor sound separation and privacy.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The German point access block layouts, on the other hand, can offer a much more affordable two-bed, one-bath unit that’s a full 36 percent smaller than the American version (second unit). This could appeal to any number of households: a family with a small child who can’t use the bathroom on their own anyway and with no need for a walk-in closet; a single person or childless couple who needs a home office; or a family of any type who’s on a budget, without the cash to spare for luxuries like a second bathroom and large walk-in closets. The dual-aspect layout also allows the bedrooms to be moved to the other side of the building from the living area, onto a quieter courtyard and away from a TV blaring in the living room.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This 810-sq. ft. two-bed, one-bath also introduces a windowed bathroom. Bathrooms and kitchens with windows are not only expected but mandatory in much of the world, but are almost impossible luxuries in North American apartment buildings, which have to carefully ration their windowed walls and cannot spare them for kitchens and bathrooms.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">And then at the other end of the spectrum, the German plan allows for a 2BR\u002F1.5BA (third unit) that’s almost as large as the American version, but with much more light – the living and kitchen areas span a full 26 ft. along a windowed wall. This allows natural ventilation for the kitchen, which could also be walled off into its own room to isolate smells if desired, as is common in most cultures around the world. This version comes with a half-bathroom, which could easily be extended into the adjacent closet to make room for a shower stall or even bathtub, offering two full bathrooms if desired.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>Three-bedroom apartments\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fh3>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-default is-cropped wp-block-gallery-5 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex\">\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"820\" data-id=\"604\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_3BR2BA-1024x820.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-604\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_3BR2BA-1024x820.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_3BR2BA-300x240.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_3BR2BA-768x615.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_3BR2BA-1536x1229.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_3BR2BA-2048x1639.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"605\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_3BR1.5BA-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-605\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_3BR1.5BA-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_3BR1.5BA-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_3BR1.5BA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_3BR1.5BA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_3BR1.5BA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-Vierspaenner_3BR1.5BA.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"606\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_3BR2BA-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-606\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_3BR2BA-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_3BR2BA-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_3BR2BA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_3BR2BA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_3BR2BA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_3BR2BA.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A European through-floor design (third plan) can save over 200 square feet for a 3BR\u002F2BA apartment compared to the American design (first plan), owing to less lightless space spent on corridors and walk-in closets. With a slight adjustment, the third European design could even have an American-style main bedroom suite, with its own bathroom and the area next to the adjacent bathroom enclosed to form a walk-in closet. A smaller European three-bedroom design (second plan) can also drop half of the second bathroom, saving the cost of an extra fixture and 40 square feet of floor space (that could be over $20,000 in construction, land, and financing costs in an expensive coastal market) for families on tighter budgets, or with younger kids who aren’t spending much time in the bathroom unsupervised anyway.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>Four-bedroom apartments\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fh3>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-default is-cropped wp-block-gallery-6 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex\">\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"820\" data-id=\"608\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_4BR2.5BA-1024x820.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-608\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_4BR2.5BA-1024x820.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_4BR2.5BA-300x240.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_4BR2.5BA-768x615.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_4BR2.5BA-1536x1229.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-interior-US_4BR2.5BA-2048x1639.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"607\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_4BR2BA-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-607\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_4BR2BA-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_4BR2BA-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_4BR2BA-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_4BR2BA-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_4BR2BA-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002F2303_FP-zweispanner_4BR2BA.jpg 1668w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The European 4BR\u002F2BA design (second plan) matches the American 3BR\u002F2BA (first plan, in the prior series) in size and fixtures, and therefore rough cost of construction. That is to say, you can fit four bedrooms in Europe in the space of three bedrooms in America. While new four-bedroom apartments are reasonably common in Europe, a new American four-bedroom apartment (first plan) is largely theoretical – the cost is so high that they are rarely found in real life. American families instead tend to opt for single-family houses, whether freestanding houses in the suburbs, or attached townhouses in more urban areas. Single-family designs, however, lack the accessibility of elevators and require more maintenance, and tall townhouses in particular tend to be less efficient (and therefore larger) due to staircases consuming more floor area.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The above examples are stylized plans, and the economics of construction are a bit more complicated. Beyond the apartments, there are also hallways, staircases, elevators, lobbies, garages, and other elements to consider. For a double-loaded corridor building, the hallway outside of the unit (measured on the plans below the within-unit square footage) tends to add more square footage; for a point access block, each apartment will have to share the cost of the vertical circulation with fewer other units on that floor. But in general, construction cost tracks the square footage of the unit. And what these plans show is that size – and therefore cost – reductions of up to a third or more are possible with more flexible point access block layouts, which are generally not legal above three stories (or \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecondegress.ca\u002FJurisdictions\">two in Canada\u003C\u002Fa>).\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>What drives these differences?\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fh3>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There are two factors driving this difference in design: vertical circulation requirements as dictated by the building code, and the external envelope of the building as dictated by the zoning code.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">North American codes (mostly building codes) have much more demanding vertical circulation requirements – that is, stairs, elevators, and in some cases even trash chutes and rooms – than codes in the rest of the world. Two stairs are required instead of one, even at fairly low heights. The stairs are required to be enclosed rather than open to the hall that serves the units. The stair treads must all be perfectly rectangular. The elevator cabins are required to accommodate a wheelchair making a 180-degree turn within them, and also a fully-extended 7-ft. stretcher. Trash is sometimes required to be collected on each floor.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the rest of the world, many of the above requirements only kick in for high-rises (and sometimes, not even then). For a mid-rise building, one staircase is almost always enough. At lower heights, the staircase can be open to the hall. In some countries (like France), the staircase can have \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.archdaily.com\u002F986630\u002F8-housing-units-in-rue-jean-bart-jean-christophe-quinton-architecte\u002F62ec40e554c3bc55a3e71779-8-housing-units-in-rue-jean-bart-jean-christophe-quinton-architecte-image\">winder treads\u003C\u002Fa>, saving space. The elevator is required to accommodate a wheelchair and another person standing behind it, but, at least in Europe, typically not a turning radius inside of the cabin. In the rare cases that somebody needs to be taken out of the building in a fully-extended stretcher, without having the head propped up to fit in an elevator that’s 1.4 meters (4 feet, 7 inches) deep, paramedics take the stairs. The result is that in the most of rest of the world, it’s more affordable to simply duplicate the vertical access core as the building grows (as in the third plan in the first set of images), rather than to extend the hallway through the middle and keep adding units on either side.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond building code issues, zoning codes strongly encourage double-loaded corridors in North America. Planning anywhere in the world typically dictates the envelope of buildings with tools like height limits, setback rules, and total floor area limits. In North America, the vast majority of urban residential land is reserved for single-family houses, while apartment buildings are limited to retail corridors, former industrial districts, downtowns, highway frontage, and historical city center multifamily neighborhoods. With proportionally less land in, say, the New York or Toronto areas zoned for apartments than in, for example, Dhaka or Rome, buildings must fill a much larger proportion of their lots to meet growing housing needs. As a result, new apartment buildings in North America end up at least 65 feet thick – leading to units that are around 30 feet deep after the common corridor is subtracted, as illustrated in our American floor plans, which clock in at 29 feet (and often more like 75 or 80 feet). At this depth, there is far too much room to fill for an apartment to stretch from one side the building to the other, even if the building code allowed such a thing. Instead, a double-loaded corridor with ample bathrooms, closets, and kitchen space is the only reasonable way to fill the dark middle of the building.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The only way to make these spaces efficient is to drop the requirement that bedrooms have windows. This makes it possible to fit more bedrooms into a space with limited windowed wall length, but at the expense of light and air. These designs are legal (and increasingly popular) in many American jurisdictions, but are almost unheard of outside of the United States.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"598\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002FFuRpiC4aEAElqpN-1024x598.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-609\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002FFuRpiC4aEAElqpN-1024x598.jpeg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002FFuRpiC4aEAElqpN-300x175.jpeg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002FFuRpiC4aEAElqpN-768x449.jpeg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2023\u002F05\u002FFuRpiC4aEAElqpN.jpeg 1330w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A double-loaded corridor building with almost no windows in bedrooms, from Seattle. Image via Mike Eliason.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The merits of North American building and zoning codes can be debated, but the effect is clearly that apartments, in order to provide the same number of bedrooms and give everyone a window, must necessarily consume far more floor area than point access block designs possible in other countries. So if you’re looking for a family-sized apartment in the U.S. or Canada and finding that new buildings don’t have what you’re looking for, it’s not you, it’s not the architect, and it’s not even the developer – it’s the codes.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":3588,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>In February, I, along with real estate developer Bobby Fijan, went on the Bloomberg podcast Odd Lots to talk about why it’s so hard to find a family-sized apartment in the United States. I argued that North American zoning and building codes work together to drive up the size of multi-bedroom apartments in particular, putting them […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[19],[],[3593,2522,2538,26,2539,27,2541],"post-164",{"author":184,"related_articles":16,"image_on_hover":16},{"self":3596,"collection":3601,"about":3603,"author":3605,"replies":3607,"version-history":3610,"predecessor-version":3613,"wp:attachment":3617,"wp:term":3620,"curies":3625},[3597],{"href":3598,"targetHints":3599},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F164",{"allow":3600},[35],[3602],{"href":2551},[3604],{"href":2554},[3606],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[3608],{"embeddable":44,"href":3609},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=164",[3611],{"count":2969,"href":3612},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F164\u002Frevisions",[3614],{"id":3615,"href":3616},614,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F164\u002Frevisions\u002F614",[3618],{"href":3619},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=164",[3621,3623],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":3622},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=164",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":3624},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=164",[3626],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":3628,"wp:term":3639},[3629],{"id":19,"name":3324,"url":16,"description":16,"link":3325,"slug":3326,"avatar_urls":3630,"acf":3631,"_links":3632},{"24":3328,"48":3329,"96":3330},[],{"self":3633,"collection":3637},[3634],{"href":45,"targetHints":3635},{"allow":3636},[35],[3638],{"href":2601},[3640,3656],[3641],{"id":19,"link":2671,"name":73,"slug":70,"taxonomy":2576,"acf":3642,"_links":3643},[],{"self":3644,"collection":3648,"about":3650,"wp:post_type":3652,"curies":3654},[3645],{"href":2676,"targetHints":3646},{"allow":3647},[35],[3649],{"href":2681},[3651],{"href":2684},[3653],{"href":2687},[3655],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[],{"id":3658,"date":3659,"date_gmt":3659,"guid":3660,"modified":3662,"modified_gmt":3662,"slug":3663,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":3664,"title":3665,"content":3667,"excerpt":3669,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":2531,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":3671,"categories":3672,"tags":3673,"class_list":3674,"acf":3676,"_links":3677,"_embedded":3710},109,"2023-04-23T08:26:04",{"rendered":3661},"http:\u002F\u002Flbo.bab.mytemp.website\u002F?p=109","2025-02-20T09:43:46","trash-city-takes-a-step-towards-cleaning-up-its-act","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrash-city-takes-a-step-towards-cleaning-up-its-act\u002F",{"rendered":3666},"Trash City takes a step towards cleaning up its act",{"rendered":3668,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Last year, New York City Mayor Eric Adams released the first draft of his administration’s major zoning proposal, called \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nyc.gov\u002Fsite\u002Fplanning\u002Fplans\u002Fcity-of-yes\u002Fcity-of-yes-overview.page\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">City of Yes\u003C\u002Fa>. Unlike most zoning changes, this one isn’t a plan for rezoning any one site or neighborhood, but rather it tweaks zoning rules across the whole city. The idea is to make it a little easier to build everywhere, without concentrating changes in any one area.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The plan’s major elements include much-needed measures like cutting minimum parking requirements for new multifamily development, loosening unit density limits that require all new apartment buildings to more or less have a minimum average unit size of 680 sq. ft., and allowing more density for buildings that include affordable apartments.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">After the plan was released, the Center for Building in North America and the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforzerowastedesign.org\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Center for Zero Waste Design\u003C\u002Fa> reached out to the Department of City Planning (DCP)to ask that the zoning code’s requirement for on-floor trash rooms in new multifamily buildings with at least nine units be removed. DCP listened, and last week, when it released its \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nyc.gov\u002Fassets\u002Fplanning\u002Fdownload\u002Fpdf\u002Fplans-studies\u002Fcity-of-yes\u002Fhousing-opportunity\u002Fannotated-zoning-text.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">draft zoning text\u003C\u002Fa>, the provision (ZR 28-12, on pg. 507) was marked to be stricken.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The removal of the requirement is in keeping with the Center for Building’s broader mission of improving the quality and affordability of new multifamily development in the United States through reforms of the details of how buildings are built and maintained, through building and zoning code provisions, technical standards, and other policies. Bigger-picture land use and zoning reforms are critical in allowing the density that American cities need to meet growing urban housing demand and climate goals, but getting the finer details of regulation right ensures that zoned capacity can be built out affordably and to an acceptable level of quality.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The on-floor trash room requirement that has been in the city’s code for decades started from an admirable idea: that residents of all buildings should have convenient access to waste disposal. But the requirement ballooned and morphed over the years into something much more onerous, which adds to both construction and ongoing maintenance costs, and which must ultimately be paid for by residents. On-floor trash rooms also reinforce a waste collection model that is not working to keep the city clean or to encourage waste reduction and recycling, and are falling out of favor in much of the developed world. While developers would still be able to choose to build them after the zoning text amendment is passed, many would likely choose not to, particularly in non-luxury and non-high-rise buildings.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The problems with on-floor trash rooms and chutes start in the design phase of a building’s life. When on-floor waste disposal was first provided in New York City buildings at the start of the 20th century, it consisted of trash chutes that open directly onto common hallways. Over time, these morphed into rooms that can accommodate bulkier items and bins for recycling. Modern accessibility standards caused these rooms to become even more expensive as they \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nyc.gov\u002Fassets\u002Fbuildings\u002Fbldgs_bulletins\u002Fbb_2019-001.pdf\">grew in size\u003C\u002Fa> to accommodate people in wheelchairs, and grew in complexity as automatic door openers and occupancy sensors were even required in some cases. Sprinklers, required in every room and in the shaft itself, added to this cost. Each of these requirements make sense on its own, but the sum total grew to be quite expensive compared to the typical alternative of simply having a room on the ground floor or in the cellar where residents can leave their trash.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The plan’s major elements include much-needed measures like cutting minimum parking requirements for new multifamily development, loosening unit density limits that require all new apartment buildings to more or less have a minimum average unit size of 680 sq. ft., and allowing more density for buildings that include affordable apartments.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">After the plan was released, the Center for Building in North America and the Center for Zero Waste Design reached out to the Department of City Planning (DCP)to ask that the zoning code’s requirement for on-floor trash rooms in new multifamily buildings with at least nine units be removed. DCP listened, and last week, when it released its draft zoning text, the provision (ZR 28-12, on pg. 507) was marked to be stricken.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The removal of the requirement is in keeping with the Center for Building’s broader mission of improving the quality and affordability of new multifamily development in the United States through reforms of the details of how buildings are built and maintained, through building and zoning code provisions, technical standards, and other policies.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":3670,"protected":17},"\u003Cp>Last year, New York City Mayor Eric Adams released the first draft of his administration’s major zoning proposal, called City of Yes. Unlike most zoning changes, this one isn’t a plan for rezoning any one site or neighborhood, but rather it tweaks zoning rules across the whole city. The idea is to make it a […]\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[19],[],[3675,2522,2538,26,2539,27,2541],"post-109",{"author":184,"related_articles":16,"image_on_hover":16},{"self":3678,"collection":3683,"about":3685,"author":3687,"replies":3689,"version-history":3692,"predecessor-version":3696,"wp:attachment":3700,"wp:term":3703,"curies":3708},[3679],{"href":3680,"targetHints":3681},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F109",{"allow":3682},[35],[3684],{"href":2551},[3686],{"href":2554},[3688],{"embeddable":44,"href":94},[3690],{"embeddable":44,"href":3691},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=109",[3693],{"count":3694,"href":3695},19,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F109\u002Frevisions",[3697],{"id":3698,"href":3699},579,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fposts\u002F109\u002Frevisions\u002F579",[3701],{"href":3702},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=109",[3704,3706],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":3705},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcategories?post=109",{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":3707},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftags?post=109",[3709],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":3711,"wp:term":3722},[3712],{"id":51,"name":2586,"url":16,"description":16,"link":2587,"slug":2588,"avatar_urls":3713,"acf":3714,"_links":3715},{"24":2590,"48":2591,"96":2592},[],{"self":3716,"collection":3720},[3717],{"href":94,"targetHints":3718},{"allow":3719},[35],[3721],{"href":2601},[3723,3739],[3724],{"id":19,"link":2671,"name":73,"slug":70,"taxonomy":2576,"acf":3725,"_links":3726},[],{"self":3727,"collection":3731,"about":3733,"wp:post_type":3735,"curies":3737},[3728],{"href":2676,"targetHints":3729},{"allow":3730},[35],[3732],{"href":2681},[3734],{"href":2684},[3736],{"href":2687},[3738],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[],{"id":3278,"date":3341,"date_gmt":3341,"guid":3741,"modified":3743,"modified_gmt":3743,"slug":3342,"status":10,"type":2522,"link":3343,"title":3744,"content":3745,"excerpt":3747,"author":19,"featured_media":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":2531,"sticky":17,"template":16,"format":2532,"meta":3748,"categories":3749,"tags":3750,"class_list":3751,"acf":3753,"_links":3754,"_embedded":3778},{"rendered":3742},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?p=162","2025-02-20T09:37:59",{"rendered":3345},{"rendered":3746,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In April 2024, building code officials and others will meet in Orlando for the first hearing to discuss proposed changes to the International Code Council’s 2027 I-Codes, or the model building codes which are eventually adopted into law throughout the United States. As the Center for Building’s executive director, I have joined together with \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.linkedin.com\u002Fin\u002Fscott-brody-eit-a16214132\u002F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Scott Brody\u003C\u002Fa> (a planner and engineer in New Jersey) and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.walterpmoore.com\u002Ftrevor-acorn\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Trevor Acorn\u003C\u002Fa> (a structural engineer in Kansas City) to submit a proposal to allow multifamily buildings up to six stories to be served by a single stair, under a strict set of conditions.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Building codes in the United States are adopted by a patchwork of states, cities, and other jurisdictions, but tend to be derived from a model code published by a nonprofit organization called the International Code Council (ICC). The ICC code that applies to American apartment buildings and other buildings larger than a townhouse or two-family dwelling is called the International Building Code (IBC). The ICC employs a staff of professionals who guide and advise participants through the code development process, but ultimately it is the members who vote and decide what goes into the model codes.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Change to building codes can follow either a “bottom-up” or “top-down” path. Modifications and innovations can start at the state or local level and, if successful, work their way up to the I-Codes and then back down into law by jurisdictions through regular code adoption cycles. They can also be accepted into the I-Codes directly, and then filter down to jurisdictions as they review and adopt the latest versions of the IBC and other codes.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Up until recently, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fslate.com\u002Fbusiness\u002F2021\u002F12\u002Fstaircases-floor-plan-twitter-housing-apartments.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">the movement\u003C\u002Fa> to allow mid-rise buildings with a single stair has largely taken a bottom-up approach. Provisions allowing single-stair buildings above the IBC’s three-story limit have been adopted for decades by \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fseattle\u002Fibc-2018\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Seattle\u003C\u002Fa> and \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fnew_york_city\u002Fnyc-building-code-2022\u002Fchapter\u002F10\u002Fmeans-of-egress#1006.3.2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">New York City\u003C\u002Fa> (larger cities like these tend to be the ones most willing to modify the I-Codes, given unique built environments, highly professional fire departments, and large construction industries and building departments who can work through the challenges of code development). More recently, the consolidated City and County of Honolulu – which encompasses the entire island of Oahu, home to two-thirds of the State of Hawaii’s population –\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodelibrary.amlegal.com\u002Fcodes\u002Fhonolulu\u002Flatest\u002Fhonolulu\u002F0-0-0-13990\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"> copied Seattle’s single-stair code section almost verbatim\u003C\u002Fa>, as part of a push for more affordable housing. Over the last year or so, the Center for Building and others have worked with \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fsinglestair-tracker\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">around a dozen jurisdictions across North America\u003C\u002Fa> to work towards allowing multifamily occupancies up to six stories served by a single exit, as part of state and local code adoptions.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">With growing interest in single-stair apartment buildings and how they can more affordably accommodate infill urban growth, we felt that it was time to propose a code change to the IBC. On page 156 (of 2,658) of the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.iccsafe.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2024-Complete-Code-Change-Monograph.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">\u003Cem>2024 Group A Proposed Changes to the I-Codes\u003C\u002Fem> complete monograph\u003C\u002Fa> (or \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fs\u002Fproposal_10412_1707832755.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">here\u003C\u002Fa>, as a standalone document with an elaboration on our thinking attached), you can find the proposed change numbered E24-24, adding new text at section 1006.3.5, with other changes elsewhere in the text (and in the International Fire Code) to accommodate this new section.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image\" id=\"yui_3_17_2_1_1734432876041_67\">\u003Cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fimages.squarespace-cdn.com\u002Fcontent\u002Fv1\u002F634dfe3176afcc36f569d83d\u002Ffbeb8b38-b750-4e51-bfcf-bd55d67f09c7\u002FScreen+Shot+2024-03-04+at+6.45.06+PM.png\" alt=\"\"\u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While mid-rise single-stair buildings are \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fsecondegress.ca\u002FJurisdictions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">unquestioned abroad\u003C\u002Fa>, the second means of egress is a deeply held tenet of American building regulation, and any attempt to change that will face an uphill battle at the ICC. As a result, our proposal takes a more conservative approach than any other jurisdiction that has adopted anything like it.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Seattle and New York City code sections that we took inspiration from draw from a menu of options, with some – but not all – of a range of different mitigations required in order to achieve an appropriate level of safety. New York City’s code section draws on a philosophy of passive fire safety, and Seattle’s (since copied in Honolulu) places more emphasis on active systems.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">New York City has, since early 19th century rules against wood-frame construction, followed the European fire safety approach of building primarily out of noncombustible materials while being more permissive about other elements, and its single-stair code section reflects that. It limits the structure of single-stair residential buildings to types I and II construction, and imposes a height limit of six stories and an upper floor plate size of 2,000 square feet. Beyond that, it does not require any particular mitigations. The city has never adopted the IBC’s requirement to install full NFPA 13 fire sprinklers in residential buildings up to six stories (instead \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fnew_york_city\u002Fnyc-building-code-2022\u002Fchapter\u002F9\u002Ffire-protection-systems#903.3.1.2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">allowing lower-cost NFPA 13R systems\u003C\u002Fa>), and also \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fup.codes\u002Fviewer\u002Fnew_york_city\u002Fnyc-building-code-2022\u002Fchapter\u002F30\u002Felevators-and-conveying-systems#3006.1.1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">never adopted\u003C\u002Fa> the IBC’s requirement to protect elevator hoistway openings on residential floors with smoke curtains, elevator lobbies, or mechanical pressurization.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Seattle has historically sat on the other end of the spectrum, with a \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.woodworks.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002Fpresentation_slides-MOKASHI-JALA-BURWELL-New-Code-Allowances-for-Six-Story-Wood-Construction-in-Seattle_combined.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">history of permissiveness towards wood\u003C\u002Fa>, and compensation with active fire protection systems. This more American approach has manifested itself in a single-stair code section that places no limits on construction type beyond those found in the rest of the code, but a requirement to use full NFPA 13 sprinklers (even at heights where 13R systems would otherwise be allowed) and pressurization (or exterior placement) of both the stair and elevator shaft. Seattle is more permissive than New York City towards floor plate size, allowing four units per floor and travel distances from the farthest corner of the unit to the stairway of up to 125 feet.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Our proposal combines elements from both for a more stringent overall set of conditions. We require construction to be of types I, II-A, or IV (in layman’s terms, concrete, steel, or mass timber), while at the same time requiring stairway pressurization. We leave the IBC’s ordinary sprinkler requirements in place (somewhat closer to Seattle’s stricter conditions than New York City’s), and adopt Seattle’s floor size limits.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In addition to being more stringent on the whole than Seattle, Honolulu, and New York City’s codes, our proposed code section is dramatically more restrictive than rules found in other high-income countries. Our buildings will be smaller in both height and floor plate size (abroad, single-stair apartment buildings can go up \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.archdaily.com\u002F983686\u002Fbare-tower-burkard-meyer-architekten\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">beyond 30 stories\u003C\u002Fa>, and have six or more units per floor), they will have more protected stairwells (in other countries, apartments typically open directly onto the stair landing at these low heights), and they will have sprinklers (which are almost unheard of in Europe and Asia for a mid-rise building).\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The proposal we’ve set forth is meant to be a starting point for a conversation about single-stair buildings in the American context. American building code and fire service officials will likely view it as an overly permissive proposal to be watered down. Developers and those with more international perspectives, on the other hand, may see it as overly stringent. Current prescriptive codes (both in the United States and abroad) have been essentially handed down over the years and modified through trial and error, with less engineering and research than one would hope for in such important regulation. As such, we expect our understanding of the issue to evolve over time, as the topic is debated and more research is conducted.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Along with our proposal, we have written a 17-page “reason statement” as is typical in the ICC process for major code change proposals, which can be found at the end of our proposal \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fs\u002Fproposal_10412_1707832755.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">here\u003C\u002Fa>. In it we address questions about firefighting operations, egress, realistic alternative site uses, fire loss history, and major fires like the 2017 Grenfell Tower fire in London. If you are interested in discussing our proposal or have any questions, please email me at \u003Ca href=\"mailto:stephen@centerforbuilding.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">stephen@centerforbuilding.org\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":3347,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17,"footnotes":16},[19],[],[3752,2522,2538,26,2539,27,2541],"post-162",{"author":184,"related_articles":457,"image_on_hover":457},{"self":3755,"collection":3759,"about":3761,"author":3763,"replies":3765,"version-history":3767,"predecessor-version":3769,"wp:attachment":3771,"wp:term":3773,"curies":3776},[3756],{"href":3305,"targetHints":3757},{"allow":3758},[35],[3760],{"href":2551},[3762],{"href":2554},[3764],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[3766],{"embeddable":44,"href":3362},[3768],{"count":112,"href":3365},[3770],{"id":3368,"href":3369},[3772],{"href":3372},[3774,3775],{"taxonomy":2576,"embeddable":44,"href":3375},{"taxonomy":2579,"embeddable":44,"href":3377},[3777],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":3779,"wp:term":3790},[3780],{"id":19,"name":3324,"url":16,"description":16,"link":3325,"slug":3326,"avatar_urls":3781,"acf":3782,"_links":3783},{"24":3328,"48":3329,"96":3330},[],{"self":3784,"collection":3788},[3785],{"href":45,"targetHints":3786},{"allow":3787},[35],[3789],{"href":2601},[3791,3807],[3792],{"id":19,"link":2671,"name":73,"slug":70,"taxonomy":2576,"acf":3793,"_links":3794},[],{"self":3795,"collection":3799,"about":3801,"wp:post_type":3803,"curies":3805},[3796],{"href":2676,"targetHints":3797},{"allow":3798},[35],[3800],{"href":2681},[3802],{"href":2684},[3804],{"href":2687},[3806],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[],[3809,3844],{"id":3810,"date":3811,"date_gmt":3811,"guid":3812,"modified":3814,"modified_gmt":3814,"slug":3815,"status":10,"type":3816,"link":3817,"title":3818,"content":3820,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":3822,"class_list":3823,"acf":3826,"_links":3827},834,"2025-09-10T15:26:31",{"rendered":3813},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=publications-footnot&p=834","2025-09-11T14:42:54","beyond-zoning-footnotes","publications-footnot","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fpublications-footnot\u002Fbeyond-zoning-footnotes\u002F",{"rendered":3819},"Beyond Zoning Footnotes",{"rendered":3821,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cbr>1 Emily Biro, “Building Small: Assessing Feasibility of 5-to-10 Unit Projects in California” (UCLA: The Ralph and Goldy Lewis Center for Regional Policy Studies, June 16, 2023), \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fescholarship.org\u002Fuc\u002Fitem\u002F0211793g\">https:\u002F\u002Fescholarship.org\u002Fuc\u002Fitem\u002F0211793g\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003Cbr>2 \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fweb.archive.org\u002Fweb\u002F20230802123757\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.mlgw.com\u002Fimages\u002Fcontent\u002Ffiles\u002FCCManualSigned.pdf\">Memphis Light, Gas and Water Division, “Cross Connection Control Program,” August 2016, 10, https:\u002F\u002Fweb.archive.org\u002Fweb\u002F20230802123757\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.mlgw.com\u002Fimages\u002Fcontent\u002Ffiles\u002FCCManualSigned.pdf.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>3 Jody Barrett, “An Act to Amend Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 68, Chapter 120, Relative to Building Codes,” Pub. L. No. HB2787 (2024)\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwapp.capitol.tn.gov\u002Fapps\u002FBillinfo\u002Fdefault.aspx?BillNumber=HB2787&ga=113\">, https:\u002F\u002Fwapp.capitol.tn.gov\u002Fapps\u002FBillinfo\u002Fdefault.aspx?BillNumber=HB2787&ga=113.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>4 Ben Abramson, “North Carolina Hopes Small Code Change Fills Big Housing Needs,” \u003Cem>Strong Towns\u003C\u002Fem>, November 6, 2023, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.strongtowns.org\u002Fjournal\u002F2023\u002F11\u002F6\u002Fnorth-carolina-hopes-small-code-change-fills-big-housing-needs.\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.strongtowns.org\u002Fjournal\u002F2023\u002F11\u002F6\u002Fnorth-carolina-hopes-small-code-change-fills-big-housing-needs.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>5 \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIBC2021P1\">“2021 International Building Code,” 2021, 310.3, https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIBC2021P1.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>6 “2021 International Building Code,” 903.2.8.\u003Cbr>7 “2021 International Building Code,” Chapter 10.\u003Cbr>8 Dan Buuck, “Fire Sprinkler Mandates: State-by-State Data” (National Association of Home Builders, July 2019)\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nahb.org\u002F-\u002Fmedia\u002FNAHB\u002Fadvocacy\u002Fdocs\u002Ftop-priorities\u002Fcodes\u002Ffire-sprinklers\u002Ffire-sprinkler-state-adoption-2019.pdf\">, https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nahb.org\u002F-\u002Fmedia\u002FNAHB\u002Fadvocacy\u002Fdocs\u002Ftop-priorities\u002Fcodes\u002Ffire-sprinklers\u002Ffire-sprinkler-state-adoption-2019.pdf; \u003C\u002Fa>“2021 International Residential Code,” 2021, R310, R311, \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIRC2021P3\">https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIRC2021P3\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003Cbr>9 “2021 International Residential Code,” R301.\u003Cbr>10 Department of Commerce & Insurance: Tennessee Board of Architectural and Engineering Examiners, “Requirements for Building Design,” accessed June 18, 2025\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.tn.gov\u002Fcommerce\u002Fregboards\u002Farchitects-engineers\u002Fconsumer\u002Fbuilding.html\">, https:\u002F\u002Fwww.tn.gov\u002Fcommerce\u002Fregboards\u002Farchitects-engineers\u002Fconsumer\u002Fbuilding.html.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>11 “2021 International Building Code,” 420.2, 420.3, 504.\u003Cbr>12 “2021 International Building Code,” 504.\u003Cbr>13 “2021 International Residential Code,” R101.2.\u003Cbr>14 “2021 International Building Code,” 903.2.8.\u003Cbr>15 Buuck, “Fire Sprinkler Mandates: State-by-State Data.”\u003Cbr>16 “2021 International Building Code,” 1006.\u003Cbr>17 Ardel Jala, “Single Exit Provisions Code Change Petition: 24-SEP-001” (State of Washington State Building Code Council, August 28, 2024)\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?NYZeSJ\">,\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Ca href=\" https:\u002F\u002Fsbcc.wa.gov\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002F2025-03\u002F24-SEP-001.pdf.\"> https:\u002F\u002Fsbcc.wa.gov\u002Fsites\u002Fdefault\u002Ffiles\u002F2025-03\u002F24-SEP-001.pdf.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>18 Stephen Jacob Smith, “Reform Trackers,” Center for Building in North America, n.d.\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackers\">, https:\u002F\u002Fwww.centerforbuilding.org\u002Ftrackers.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>19 Seva Rodnyansky et al., “Small Single-Stairway Apartment Buildings Have Strong Safety Record” (Pew Charitable Trusts, February 27, 2025),\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.pew.org\u002Fen\u002Fresearch-and-analysis\u002Freports\u002F2025\u002F02\u002Fsmall-single-stairway-apartment-buildings-have-strong-safety-record\"> https:\u002F\u002Fwww.pew.org\u002Fen\u002Fresearch-and-analysis\u002Freports\u002F2025\u002F02\u002Fsmall-single-stairway-apartment-buildings-have-strong-safety-record.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>20 Rodnyansky et al.; Stephen Jacob Smith, “CAL FIRE Single-Exit Work Group: Cost Subgroup Report” (California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, June 11, 2025)\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fdocs.google.com\u002Fdocument\u002Fd\u002F1XLxigdeesZD_uoXIcGT6K6VINjngnUkilsyV4SGP4EU\u002Fedit?usp=sharing\">, https:\u002F\u002Fdocs.google.com\u002Fdocument\u002Fd\u002F1XLxigdeesZD_uoXIcGT6K6VINjngnUkilsyV4SGP4EU\u002Fedit?usp=sharing.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>21 “Fair Housing Act, 42 U.S. Code § 3604,” September 13, 1988\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?page_id=877\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"877\">, https:\u002F\u002Fwww.law.cornell.edu\u002Fuscode\u002Ftext\u002F42\u002F3604; “24 C.F.R. § 100.205\u003C\u002Fa> \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?HaksRI\">, \u003C\u002Fa>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ecfr.gov\u002Fcurrent\u002Ftitle-24\u002Fsubtitle-B\u002Fchapter-I\u002Fpart-100\u002Fsubpart-D\u002Fsection-100.205\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ecfr.gov\u002Fcurrent\u002Ftitle-24\u002Fsubtitle-B\u002Fchapter-I\u002Fpart-100\u002Fsubpart-D\u002Fsection-100.205\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?HaksRI\">.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>22 \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?iGNApt\">“2021 International Existing Building Code,” 2021, 1002.1, \u003C\u002Fa>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIEBC2021P2\">https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIEBC2021P2\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?iGNApt\">.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>23 “2021 International Building Code,” 304.1.\u003Cbr>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIFC2024V1.0\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIFC2024V1.0\">24 \u003C\u002Fa>“2021 International Building Code,” 907; “2021 International Fire Code,” 2021, 907,\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIFC2024V1.0\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIFC2024V1.0\"> https:\u002F\u002Fcodes.iccsafe.org\u002Fcontent\u002FIFC2024V1.0.25 “2021 International Fire Code,” 903.4, 907.6.6.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>25 2021 International Fire Code, 903.4, 907.6.6.\u003Cbr>26 \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?DgLFje\">Tucker McGree, “U.S. Experience with Sprinklers” (National Fire Protection Association, April 1, 2024), \u003C\u002Fa>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002Feducation-and-research\u002Fresearch\u002Fnfpa-research\u002Ffire-statistical-reports\u002Fus-experience-with-sprinklers\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002Feducation-and-research\u002Fresearch\u002Fnfpa-research\u002Ffire-statistical-reports\u002Fus-experience-with-sprinklers.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>27 Shelby Hall, “Home Structure Fires” (National Fire Protection Association, April 1, 2023)\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?7BcR60\">, \u003C\u002Fa>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002Feducation-and-research\u002Fresearch\u002Fnfpa-research\u002Ffire-statistical-reports\u002Fhome-structure-fires\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nfpa.org\u002Feducation-and-research\u002Fresearch\u002Fnfpa-research\u002Ffire-statistical-reports\u002Fhome-structure-fires\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?7BcR60\">.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>28 2021 International Building Code, 905.3; 2021 International Fire Code, Appendix D\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.zotero.org\u002Fgoogle-docs\u002F?BEbo9g\">.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>29 Steven Buchberger et al., “Peak Water Demand Study: Probability Estimates for Efficient Fixtures in Single and Multi-Family Residential Buildings” (International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials, January 2017), \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fiapmo.org\u002Fmedia\u002Fjk1n2zf0\u002Fpeak-water-demand-study-executive-summary.pdf\">https:\u002F\u002Fiapmo.org\u002Fmedia\u002Fjk1n2zf0\u002Fpeak-water-demand-study-executive-summary.pdf\u003C\u002Fa>; Stantec, “Water Demand Calculator Study” (International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials, December 1, 2020), \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fiapmostandards.org\u002Fmedia\u002Fra3frnnn\u002Fwater_demand_calculator_study-final.pdf\">https:\u002F\u002Fiapmostandards.org\u002Fmedia\u002Fra3frnnn\u002Fwater_demand_calculator_study-final.pdf\u003C\u002Fa>.\u003Cbr>30 Keith Wilson, “Amend System Development Charge Exemptions Code to Add a Temporary Exemption for Residential Housing Projects (Amend Code Section 17.14.070),” Pub. L. No. 2025–243, 17.14.070 (2025), \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.portland.gov\u002Fcouncil\u002Fdocuments\u002Fordinance\u002Fpassed\u002F192082\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.portland.gov\u002Fcouncil\u002Fdocuments\u002Fordinance\u002Ftemporary-sdc-exemption-housing.\u003C\u002Fa>\u003Cbr>31 “2021 International Building Code,” 1106.2.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"_acf_changed":17},[3824,3816,3825,26,27],"post-834","type-publications-footnot",[],{"self":3828,"collection":3833,"about":3836,"wp:attachment":3839,"curies":3842},[3829],{"href":3830,"targetHints":3831},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpublications-footnot\u002F834",{"allow":3832},[35],[3834],{"href":3835},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpublications-footnot",[3837],{"href":3838},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Ftypes\u002Fpublications-footnot",[3840],{"href":3841},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=834",[3843],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":3845,"date":3846,"date_gmt":3846,"guid":3847,"modified":3849,"modified_gmt":3849,"slug":3850,"status":10,"type":3816,"link":3851,"title":3852,"content":3854,"featured_media":20,"template":16,"meta":3856,"class_list":3857,"acf":3859,"_links":3860},805,"2025-08-30T18:07:50",{"rendered":3848},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=publications-footnot&p=805","2025-09-05T08:45:13","elevators-footnotes","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fpublications-footnot\u002Felevators-footnotes\u002F",{"rendered":3853},"Elevators Footnotes",{"rendered":3855,"protected":17},"\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cbr>1 Fogelson, Downtown: Its Rise and Fall, 1880-1950, 115–16.\u003Cbr>2 “Elevator and Escalator Fact Sheet”; “Public Transportation Facts.”\u003Cbr>3 “Purchasing Power Parities (PPP).”\u003Cbr>4 “Publication 862: Sales and Use Tax Classifications of Capital Improvements and Repairs to Real Property”; “Sales Tax and Home Improvements: Tax Topic Bulletin S&U-2.”\u003Cbr>5 “Elevator and Escalator Fact Sheet.”\u003Cbr>6 de Mas Latrie, “Closing the Distance Between Europe and China.”\u003Cbr>7 “Fact Sheet.”\u003Cbr>8 “American Housing Survey (AHS): 2021 National — General Housing Data — All Occupied Units”; “Número de viviendas principales según tipo de edificación y régimen de tenencia”; “Federación Empresarial Española de Ascensores.”\u003Cbr>9 “Distribution of Population by Degree of Urbanisation, Dwelling Type and Income Group – EU-SILC Survey.”\u003Cbr>10 “PLUTO and MapPLUTO”; “SNEL: Sicherheit für bestehende Aufzüge, SIA 370.080”; “Wohnungen nach Kanton, Gebäudekategorie, Anzahl Zimmer, Wohnungsfläche und Bauperiode”; “DOB Celebrates National Elevator and Escalator Safety Awareness Week.”\u003Cbr>11 Primari, “La Ca’ Brütta di Muzio e il IV libro del Serlio: l’invenzione del linguaggio”; Garnerone, “Casa Rustici”; Garnerone, “Edificio per abitazioni ‘Casa a ville sovrapposte.’”\u003Cbr>12 “Rosta Nova INA-CASA”; “Franco Albini _ Via Felice Orsini 68 _ 1953.”\u003Cbr>13 Ott, “54 Social Housing in Inca, Illes Balears \\\u002F Joan Josep Fortuny Giró + Alventosa Morell Arquitectes.”\u003Cbr>14 “Generationenhaus Schauburg”; “Neubau Zweifamilienhaus Emmen.”\u003Cbr>15 Dal Secco, “Ascenseurs à R+3 sans condition : S. Cluzel explique !”\u003Cbr>16 “Bauordnungen\\\u002FVV Technische Baubestimmungen.”\u003Cbr>17 “Documento Básico SUA: Seguridad de utilización y accesibilidad,” Sección SUA 9 Accesibilidad, 1.1.2; “Testo aggiornato della legge 9 gennaio 1989, n. 13, recante: ‘Disposizioni per favorire il superamento e l’eliminazione delle barriere architettoniche negli edifici privati’.,” Art. 1; “Boverket’s Mandatory Provisions and General Recommendations, BBR: BFS 2011:6 with Amendments up to BFS 2018:4.”\u003Cbr>18 “Byggteknisk forskrift (TEK17) med veiledning,” § 12-3; “Executive Order No. 1615 of 13 Dec. 2017 (in Force),” Chapter 10, Section 244.\u003Cbr>19 “Règlement concernant l’accessibilité des constructions et installations diverses (RACI), L 5 05.06,” Chapitre II, Art. 8; “Planungs- und Baugesetz (PBG), 700.1,” § 239.\u003Cbr>20 “Building Code Ordinances Modified,” 1034.\u003Cbr>21 Trotsky, My Life, Chapter 22.\u003Cbr>22 “Elevator and Escalator Fact Sheet.”\u003Cbr>23 “Interactive Property Map.”\u003Cbr>24 “PLUTO and MapPLUTO”; “Elevator Device Data – FOIL.”\u003Cbr>25 “A Bill for an Ordinance: 7 (2019)”; Pang, “Developer Credits Bills with Making 5-Story Walk-up Complex Feasible.”\u003Cbr>26 Aaron Brumer & Assoc., Architects, “69-Unit Multifamily Building: 1726 & 1728 N. Alexandria Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90027”; Jeff Zbikowski Architecture, “Mariposa Apts: Entitlement Set.”\u003Cbr>27 Barrier Free Environments, Inc., “Fair Housing Act Design Manual: A Manual to Assist Designers and Builders in Meeting the Accessibility Requirements of the Fair Housing Act.”\u003Cbr>28 “International Building Code,” Section 1009.2.1.\u003Cbr>29 “2022 New York City Building Code,” Section 3002.4.\u003Cbr>30 “164 S. Oxford Street #PH”; “625 Warren Street #4.”\u003Cbr>31 Garcia et al., “Unlocking the Potential of Missing Middle Housing.”\u003Cbr>32 “Height.”\u003Cbr>33 Dyett & Bhatia Urban and Regional Planners, “Sacramento 2040 General Plan, Public Review Draft.”\u003Cbr>34 “Multiplex Proposal Update: Adding Missing Middle Housing + Simplifying Regulations In Low Density Neighbourhoods”; Jeffords, “Toronto City Council Approves Multiplexes to Address Growing Housing Crisis.”\u003Cbr>35 Hamilton, “Learning from Houston’s Townhouse Reforms.”\u003Cbr>36 Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities.\u003Cbr>37 Gans, “The Death & Life of Great American Cities, by Jane Jacobs.”\u003Cbr>38 Kanigel, Eyes on the Street.\u003Cbr>39 Shipler, “‘Village’ Group Wins 8-Year Battle to Build 5-Story Walk-Up Apartments.”\u003Cbr>40 Martin, “West Village Houses a Monument to a 1960s Development Battle.”\u003Cbr>41 Speckert, “The Second Egress: Building a Code Change”; Eliason, “Unlocking Livable, Resilient, Decarbonized Housing with Point Access Blocks”; Smith, “Single-Stair Tracker.”\u003Cbr>42 “‘80% of the Buildings That Will Exist in 2050 Already Exist’ – Bringing Net Zero to the Masses.”\u003Cbr>43 “Nachgerüstete Aufzugsanlagen.”\u003Cbr>44 “Instalación de ascensores en Barcelona: Solicite precios para instalar ascensores en su edificio”; “Ascensor Comunidad de Vecinos, Precios, Instalación y Ayudas”; “¿Cuánto cuesta poner un ascensor?”; Torío, “¿Te han dicho que tu edificio no puede tener ascensor? Esta es la solución”; “Aufzug nachträglich einbauen ist einfacher als gedacht!”\u003Cbr>45 Bradsher, “As China Ages, a Push to Add Elevators Offers a New Kind of Economic Relief.”\u003Cbr>46 “Chongqing Building with 24 Floors and No Elevator Goes Viral.”\u003Cbr>47 Ma, Li, and Yang, “Housing Price Appreciation Effects of Elevator Installation in Old Residential Areas: Empirical Evidence Based on a Multiperiod DID Model”; Bradsher, “As China Ages, a Push to Add Elevators Offers a New Kind of Economic Relief.”\u003Cbr>48 Chen et al., “Analysis of Adding Elevator to Multi-Storey Residential Buildings in Xining Based on Cost Benefit Analysis.”\u003Cbr>49 Ley 49\\\u002F1960, de 21 de julio, sobre propiedad horizontal.\u003Cbr>50 “Ref: c.u. 62-11.”\u003Cbr>51 Westling, “Elevators for Existing Buildings – Prefabrication and Pilot Series for Continued Development.”\u003Cbr>52 “Barriere­reduzierung – Investitions­zuschuss, Zuschuss 455-B”; “Altersgerecht Umbauen – Kredit, Kredit 159”; Yılmaz, “SEElift Zagreb Meeting.”\u003Cbr>53 Mammarella, “Bonus 75% barriere architettoniche prorogato al 2025.”\u003Cbr>54 “To Spend $300,000 on Bronx Houses”; “Urges Remodeling of Old Buildings.”\u003Cbr>55 Oser, “Making Tenements Modern”; Peterson, “Tenements of the 1880’s Are Adapting to the 1980’s.”\u003Cbr>56 Oser, “Outside Elevators May Help Sell Renovated Walk-Ups.”\u003Cbr>57 Kukhnin et al., “Global Elevators & Escalators.”\u003Cbr>58 Smith, Interview.\u003Cbr>59 “Maintenance & Operating Expense Guidelines, New Construction.”\u003Cbr>60 de la Guardia Garcia-Lomas, Palacios, and Palomo Zurdo, “Mergers & Acquisitions in the Elevator Industry: The Use of Information and Communication Technologies to Avoid Information Asymmetry.”\u003Cbr>61 “Preisliste Aufzug – Wartung.”\u003Cbr>62 Berthault, “Rapport relatif aux difficultés rencontrées dans l’entretien, la maintenance, la réparation et la mise aux normes des ascenseurs à Paris et dans l’application des dispositions de la loi « urbanisme et habitat » du 2 juillet 2003 dite « de Robien »,” 30.\u003Cbr>63 Konaté, “Quel est le prix de l’entretien d’un ascenseur.”\u003Cbr>64 “Elevator Testing: Annual and 5 Year Elevator Testing.”\u003Cbr>65 “Contrôle technique quinquennal des ascenseurs – ‘Loi SAE – Loi de Robien’”; “Contrôle technique des ascenseurs suivant la Loi de Robien.”\u003Cbr>66 “Aufzugsprüfung Österreich, Personen- und Lastenaufzug, S41-705-10-RI0104-01-0001.”\u003Cbr>67 “Tariffario Divisione Ascensori”; “Elenco prezzi unitari”; “Tariffario delle prestazioni e degli interventi erogati dal Dipartimento di Igiene e Prevenzione Sanitaria richiesti da terzi nel proprio interesse”; “Informazioni sulle tariffe delle verifiche periodiche.”\u003Cbr>68 “Modernization Proposal: 1011 Englewood Pkwy.”; “Request for Approval: P-220001, Elevator Modernization Project.”\u003Cbr>69 “Question écrite n° 5-11230.”\u003Cbr>70 Berthault, “Rapport relatif aux difficultés rencontrées dans l’entretien, la maintenance, la réparation et la mise aux normes des ascenseurs à Paris et dans l’application des dispositions de la loi « urbanisme et habitat » du 2 juillet 2003 dite « de Robien »,” 52.\u003Cbr>71 Marten-Pérolin, “En France, un quart des ascenseurs ont plus de 40 ans et vont devoir être rénovés rapidement”; Coulaud, “Copropriété : comment les ascensoristes poussent à la consommation.”\u003Cbr>72 “Aufzugsmodernisierung – Kosten und Fristen.”\u003Cbr>73 “The Benefits of GMV North America’s 100% Complete Packages.”\u003Cbr>74 Retolaza et al., “New Design for Installation (DfI) Methodology for Large Size and Long Life Cycle Products: Application to an Elevator”; Fehler, “Die Aufzugsmontage – Vorbereitung bis Inbetriebnahme.”\u003Cbr>75 Berliner Mieterverein, “Aufzug gesperrt: Stuhl auf halber Treppe ist kein Ersatz”; “Comment planifier un projet de modernisation d’un ascenseur d’appartement: Informations indispensables pour planifier la rénovation de votre ascenseur”; Zeisberg, “Aufzugsmodernisierung – aber wann und wie?”\u003Cbr>76 Hussey, “Elevator Modernization: Is It Time?”\u003Cbr>77 Chin, “An Elevator Overhaul Is Both Headache and Opportunity.”\u003Cbr>78 Bernard, Lifted: A Cultural History of the Elevator, 1–33.\u003Cbr>79 Shrestha, “Safety Considerations for the Design of Modern Elevator Systems”; The A17.1 Code: A Century of Progress for Safety, 1921-2021, 12.\u003Cbr>80 Consumer Product Safety Commission, “National Electronic Injury Surveillance System 2003-2022.”\u003Cbr>81 Bernard, Lifted: A Cultural History of the Elevator, 32.\u003Cbr>82 “Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities: Table A-5. Fatal Occupational Injuries by Occupation and Event or Exposure, All United States,” 2021; “National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates.”\u003Cbr>83 “News Release: National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries in 2022”; “Fatal Occupational Injuries, Total Hours Worked, and Rates of Fatal Occupational Injuries by Selected Worker Characteristics, Occupations, and Industries, Civilian Workers.”\u003Cbr>84 Wiatrowski and Janocha, “Comparing Fatal Work Injuries in the United States and the European Union.”\u003Cbr>85 “Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities: Table A-5. Fatal Occupational Injuries by Occupation and Event or Exposure, All United States,” 2021; “Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities: Table A-5. Fatal Occupational Injuries by Occupation and Event or Exposure, All United States,” 2020; “Injuries, Illnesses, and Fatalities: Table A-5. Fatal Occupational Injuries by Occupation and Event or Exposure, All United States,” 2019; “Fatal Occupational Injuries by Selected Characteristics.”\u003Cbr>86 “Accidents of Lifts and Escalators.”\u003Cbr>87 Gemici-Loukas, “Basic and Industrial Statistics.”\u003Cbr>88 Bernard, Lifted: A Cultural History of the Elevator, 30.\u003Cbr>89 Blazewick et al., “Stair-Related Injuries Treated in United States Emergency Departments.”\u003Cbr>90 Webber, “Accidental Falls on Stairs or Steps in England and Wales: A Study of Time Trends of Fatalities.”\u003Cbr>91 Cayless, “Slip, Trip and Fall Accidents: Relationship to Building Features and Use of Coroners’ Reports in Ascribing Cause.”\u003Cbr>92 Huxley-Reicher, “Fact File: Americans Drive the Most.”\u003Cbr>93 “Early Estimate of Motor Vehicle Traffic Fatalities in 2022”; Yellman and Sauber-Schatz, “Motor Vehicle Crash Deaths — United States and 28 Other High-Income Countries, 2015 and 2019.”\u003Cbr>94 “Safety Rules for the Construction and Installation of Lifts – Particular Applications for Passenger and Goods Passenger Lift – Part 70: Accessibility to Lifts for Persons Including Persons with Disability.”\u003Cbr>95 “Documento Básico SUA: Seguridad de utilización y accesibilidad,” Anejo A, Ascensor accesible.\u003Cbr>96 “Documento Básico SI: Seguridad en caso de incendio,” Sección SI 4, Tabla 1.1; Anejo SI A, Ascensor de emergencia.\u003Cbr>97 “Prescrizioni tecniche necessarie a garantire l’accessibilità, l’adattabilità e la visitabilità degli edifici privati e di edilizia residenziale pubblica sovvenzionata e agevolata, ai fini del superamento e dell’eliminazione delle barriere architettoniche. (GU Serie Generale n.145 del 23-06-1989 – Suppl. 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Sup. 844.\u003Cbr>169 Devlin, “Re: Proposed Rule: Apprenticeship Programs, Labor Standards for Registration, Amendment of Regulations,” October 24, 2019.\u003Cbr>170 Christensen, “Re: Associated Builders and Contractors Empire State Chapter Elevator\\\u002FEscalator Constructor & Modernizer Program Pending Approval,” October 16, 2020; Hagerty, “Re: Associated Builders and Contractors Empire State Chapter Elevator\\\u002FEscalator Constructor & Modernizer Program Pending Approval,” October 12, 2020.\u003Cbr>171 “Office of the Illinois State Fire Marshal Elevator Safety Review Board Meeting,” July 14, 2011, 58–85.\u003Cbr>172 “DOL-Registered Apprenticeship Programs in Texas as of 8.28.19”; “Period Covered: 7\\\u002F1\\\u002F2017 – 1\\\u002F1\\\u002F2023 (Connecticut Registered Apprenticeships)”; Public Sector Consultants Inc., “Benefits of Michigan Apprenticeship Programs”; Argyres and Moir, “Building Trades Apprenticeship Training in Massachusetts: An Analysis of Union and Non-Union Programs, 1997-2007.”\u003Cbr>173 Blankenbiller, “Get With the Program!”\u003Cbr>174 “NEBA Agreement with IUEC, 2022-2027,” Article XXII.\u003Cbr>175 International Union, El. v. State El., 11822.\u003Cbr>176 Layman, “Minutes: Elevator Installation, Repair and Maintenance Work Examining Board.”\u003Cbr>177 Looney et al., An Act Expanding Economic Opportunity in Licensed Occupations; Lamont, An Act Expanding Economic Opportunity in Occupations Licensed by the Department of Consumer Protection.\u003Cbr>178 “House Bills 6445, 6449, An Act Concerning Economic Opportunity in Occupations Licensed by the Departments of Consumer Protection and Public Health.”\u003Cbr>179 “Testimony For Bill Number HB-06445 In All Committees.”\u003Cbr>180 DeRosa, “Testimony of the International Union of Elevator Constructors Local 91,” February 23, 2021; Farnsworth, “Public Hearing Testimony,” February 23, 2021.\u003Cbr>181 Comey et al., An Act Expanding Economic Opportunity In Occupations Licensed By The Departments Of Public Health And Consumer Protection And Requiring A Report From Certain Executive Branch Agencies Regarding Background Checks And The Feasibility Of Establishing Preclearance Assessments Of Criminal History; “Elevator Journeyperson – Equivalent Out of State License.”\u003Cbr>182 General Laws, Part I, Title XX, Chapter 143, Section 71C.\u003Cbr>183 United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2022: 47-0000 Construction and Extraction Occupations (Major Group).”\u003Cbr>184 United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, “May 2022 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates: United States.”\u003Cbr>185 International Union of Elevator Constructors, “Wage Rates, IUEC Local No. 8, San Francisco, CA,” January 1, 2020; International Union of Elevator Constructors, “Wage Rates, IUEC Local No. 135, Charlotte, NC,” January 1, 2020.\u003Cbr>186 Woodlock, Kone v. Local 4, IUEC.\u003Cbr>187 “NEBA Agreement with IUEC, 2022-2027,” Article XIV, Par. 1; Article IV, Par. 11; Article XV.\u003Cbr>188 NEBA, Fujitec v. IUEC, Local 4.\u003Cbr>189 Otis v. Local 91, IUEC.\u003Cbr>190 Otis v. IUEC, Local 34.\u003Cbr>191 NEBA and Schindler v. IUEC, Local 14.\u003Cbr>192 NEBA and Schindler v. Local 5, IUEC.\u003Cbr>193 Otis v. Local 4, IUEC, D. Mass. May 26, 2004 at 4; Otis v. Local 4, IUEC, D. Mass. June 10, 2005 at 4.\u003Cbr>194 Otis v. Local 1, IUEC; Otis v. Local 4, IUEC, D. Mass. November 24, 2004.\u003Cbr>195 Coles, “The World’s Oldest Road.”\u003Cbr>196 “Modular Construction in the Lift Sector”; “Fast and Innovative: Modular Design Lifts”; “The Urban Future Is Pre-Fabricated – Why Modular Construction Is on the Rise”; “Step into the Future with Schindler R.I.S.E.”\u003Cbr>197 Brigham, “General President’s Report.”\u003Cbr>198 Grossman, “IUEC, Local 35 v. Kone, Gr: No. 4-112 – Reassembling Crosshead Sheaves.”\u003Cbr>199 Vaughn, “Kone v. IUEC, Work Jurisdiction, Installation of Balustrade Brackets Grievance, AAA Case No. 33 300 00336 02.”\u003Cbr>200 McCann, “Deaths and Injuries Involving Elevators and Escalators.”\u003Cbr>201 Vaughn, “Kone v. IUEC, Work Jurisdiction, Installation of Balustrade Brackets Grievance, AAA Case No. 33 300 00336 02.”\u003Cbr>202 “Settlement Agreement Regarding 9300 Escalator”; Bender and Van Winkle, “Settlement Agreement Regarding 9700 Escalator.”\u003Cbr>203 “Settlement Agreement, TKE and IUEC (Synergy L MRL).”\u003Cbr>204 Bender and Dzierzawiec, “Settlement Agreement: FMM\\\u002F6400 Product.”\u003Cbr>205 Bender and Dzierzawiec, “Settlement Agreement: 5500 MRL Rear Counterweight.”\u003Cbr>206 Local 18, “Local Roundup.”\u003Cbr>207 “NEBA Agreement with IUEC, 2022-2027,” Article IV.\u003Cbr>208 Shields and Bender, “Settlement Agreement (Schindler 3300).”\u003Cbr>209 Clarke, “ThyssenKrupp Elevator v. IUEC, Grievance: Work Jurisdiction.”\u003Cbr>210 “NEBA Agreement with IUEC, 2022-2027,” Article IV.\u003Cbr>211 Otis Elevator Co. v. Union, Elevator, Local 4, 408 F. 3d.\u003Cbr>212 “Contractors.”\u003Cbr>213 International Union of Elevator Constructors, Local 3 (Otis Elevator Company), 364 NLRB.\u003Cbr>214 Elevator Constructors Local 91 (Otis Elevator), 281 NLRB.\u003Cbr>215 “Sistema MPD (Multi Pantalla Digital)”; “Settlement Agreement: Otis Elite Services.”\u003Cbr>216 Knapik.\u003Cbr>217 Oracle Elevator v. University of South Carolina, Best Value Bid No. USC-BVB-2485MR; Pipitone, “Contract Controversy at MIA Escalates Into Court Fight.”\u003Cbr>218 “NEBA Agreement with IUEC, 2022-2027,” Article XX.\u003Cbr>219 “Model Elevator Law”; Blankenbiller, “Get With the Program!”\u003Cbr>220 The A17.1 Code: A Century of Progress for Safety, 1921-2021, 21.\u003Cbr>221 The A17.1 Code: A Century of Progress for Safety, 1921-2021, 2–7.\u003Cbr>222 The A17.1 Code: A Century of Progress for Safety, 1921-2021, 21–22.\u003Cbr>223 The A17.1 Code: A Century of Progress for Safety, 1921-2021, 23; Alley, “Elevator Rules and ASME Adopted Code Year by State.”\u003Cbr>224 Dispan, “Aufzugs- und Fahrtreppenbranche in Deutschland: Entwicklungstrends und Herausforderungen – Branchenreport 2015,” 24.\u003Cbr>225 “IAEC Position Paper: Should ASME A17.1\\\u002FCSA B44 ‘Converge’ with ISO 8100”; Freeland, “Elevator Maintenance and Inspection: Recommendations, Regulations and Codes: 1880-1940”; Gray, “The 1935 Code of Practice for the Installation of Lifts and Escalators.”\u003Cbr>226 Mäntyvaara, “40 Years of Elevator-Code Standardization.”\u003Cbr>227 “Otis Overhaul to Cut 2,000?”; Lotze, “Esfandiar Gharibaan: Harmonised Standards Reduce Costs.”\u003Cbr>228 Kukhnin et al., “Global Elevators & Escalators.”\u003Cbr>229 “IAEC Position Paper: Should ASME A17.1\\\u002FCSA B44 ‘Converge’ with ISO 8100.”\u003Cbr>230 8 CCR § 3141, Conveyances Covered by ASME A17.1-2004.\u003Cbr>231 “Office of the Illinois State Fire Marshal Elevator Safety Review Board Meeting,” November 5, 2020.\u003Cbr>232 Rushton, “Fire Marshal, Governor’s Offices Have Questionable Track Records as to Elevators”; O’Connor, “Quinn Renames Board Chairman despite Alleged Rezko Ties.”\u003Cbr>233 Gray, “Early Machine-Room-Less Elevators.”\u003Cbr>234 LiMandri, “Promulgation Details for 1 RCNY 3610-02”; Karin, “New Elevator Technology: The Machine Room-Less Elevator”; “MRL Elevators on the Rise.”\u003Cbr>235 Blaska, “California Proposed Elevator Code Changes.”\u003Cbr>236 “NEII Comments on DOSH Presentation.”\u003Cbr>237 “ASME 17.1-2016\\\u002FCSA B44-16,” 2.11.11.5.7; “BS EN 81‐20:2020,” 5.3.5.3.1(b).\u003Cbr>238 Koshak, “Elevator Hoistway Doors.”\u003Cbr>239 “ASME 17.1-2016\\\u002FCSA B44-16,” 8.3.4.\u003Cbr>240 “BS EN 81-58:2018”; Gizicki et al., “The Investigation of Efficacy and Fire Resistance Characteristics of Fire Barrier in the Lift Industry Applications”; “BS EN 81‐20:2020,” 5.3.5.2.\u003Cbr>241 “Wittur.”\u003Cbr>242 Pelikan, “Stuck in an Elevator? Here’s What to Do (and Not Do).”\u003Cbr>243 “BS EN 81-28:2018.”\u003Cbr>244 “2015 Group A Proposed Changes to the I-Codes Memphis Committee Action Hearings,” April 19, 2015, EB 94-15.\u003Cbr>245 Cid, “Complete Revision History to the 2018 I-Codes – IBC: Successful Changes and Public Comments; Code Change No: G195-15.”\u003Cbr>246 “2015 Group A Proposed Changes to the I-Codes Memphis Committee Action Hearings,” April 19, 2015, G 195-15.\u003Cbr>247 “MosaicONE VMS.”\u003Cbr>248 “Überwachungskamera im Aufzug: Ist das erlaubt?”; “Data Protection Laws of the World: Slovenia.”\u003Cbr>249 “ASME 17.1-2016\\\u002FCSA B44-16,” 2.15.9; “BS EN 81‐20:2020,” 5.4.5.\u003Cbr>250 “Telescopic 4 Step Apron”; “Elevator Cab Retractable Toe Guard, Car Apron.”\u003Cbr>251 “Schindler 3300: Distinctive Design. Cost-Effective Solution. Green Technology Made Easy.”; “Schindler 3000: Elegante, funzionale e flessibile”; “Gen3 Elevator: Hoistway Dimensional Data”; “Gen2 Life: L’ordinaire devient extraordinaire.”\u003Cbr>252 Best and Demers, Investigation Report on the MGM Grand Hotel Fire.\u003Cbr>253 “2000 International Building Code,” 707.14.1; “International Building Code,” 713.14.1.\u003Cbr>254 “2008 New York City Building Code,” 403.9.1; “2022 New York City Building Code,” 3006.1.1.\u003Cbr>255 Baldassarra, “CTC Elevator Lobbies: Study Group Report for CTC Meeting June 28-29, 2012.”\u003Cbr>256 “2018 International Building Code,” 3006.2.\u003Cbr>257 Baldassarra, “2018 Complete Revision History to the 2018 I-Codes – IBC: Successful Changes and Public Comments; Code Change No: G201-15.”\u003Cbr>258 Koshak, “Safety and Buffer Testing without Weights.”\u003Cbr>259 “Elevator Technical Advisory Committee Meeting, Transcript of Proceedings: February 8, 2022, Day 1,” 35.\u003Cbr>260 Ebeling and Heling, “Electronic Inspections Are Making Elevators Safer.”\u003Cbr>261 “ASIS II – Die Alternative bei der Aufzugsprüfung”; “ADIASYSTEM.”\u003Cbr>262 Alley, “Elevator Rules and ASME Adopted Code Year by State.”\u003Cbr>263 “Office of the Illinois State Fire Marshal Elevator Safety Review Board Meeting,” November 5, 2020, 38.\u003Cbr>264 “Office of the Illinois State Fire Marshal Elevator Safety Review Board Meeting,” 69–72.\u003Cbr>265 “Elevator Technical Advisory Committee Meeting, Transcript of Proceedings: February 8, 2022, Day 1,” 38–41.\u003Cbr>266 “Alternative Testing – Pro and Con.”\u003Cbr>267 “Office of the Illinois State Fire Marshal Elevator Safety Review Board Meeting,” November 5, 2020, 58; “NEBA Agreement with IUEC, 2022-2027,” Article VIII, Par. 2.\u003Cbr>268 Chapman, “To the Pennsylvania Elevator Safety Board,” n.d.; “Elevator Safety Board Meeting Minutes: May 6, 2020”; “Elevator Plan Review and Inspection Requirements.”\u003Cbr>269 Wurtec, “2019 Video-Text-Audio & Alternative CAT5 Testing.”\u003Cbr>270 “FAQ Aufzugsprüfung: Häufig gestellte Fragen und Wissenswertes zu den Prüfungen von Aufzügen.”\u003Cbr>271 Petry, “The Germany\\\u002FEuropean Elevator Safety System and Policy”; “Office of the Illinois State Fire Marshal Elevator Safety Review Board Meeting,” November 5, 2020, 38; “ADIASYSTEM.”\u003Cbr>272 “Directive: Approval of Alternative Testing for Category 5 Testing.”\u003Cbr>273 “Cost Calculations on Non MRL-Related Provisions of DOSH Elevator Code Updates.”\u003Cbr>274 Research and Data Services, “Preliminary Cost-Benefit Analysis: Chapter 296-96 WAC, Safety Regulations and Fees for All Elevators, Dumbwaiters, Escalators, and Other Conveyances,” 9–10; RCW 34.05.328: Significant legislative rules, other selected rules.\u003Cbr>275 “A117.1: Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities,” Table 507.4.1.\u003Cbr>276 “The 1984 National Minimum Drinking Age Act.”\u003Cbr>277 Singer, “How To Immigrate To Canada As An Elevator Constructor Or Mechanic.”\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"_acf_changed":17},[3858,3816,3825,26,27],"post-805",[],{"self":3861,"collection":3866,"about":3868,"wp:attachment":3870,"curies":3873},[3862],{"href":3863,"targetHints":3864},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fpublications-footnot\u002F805",{"allow":3865},[35],[3867],{"href":3835},[3869],{"href":3838},[3871],{"href":3872},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=805",[3874],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},[3876,3960,4082,4151,4213,4276,4339,4402,4465,4572,4676,4773,4853,4916,4979,5045,5113,5179,5242,5308,5371,5434,5497,5560,5623,5686,5749,5816,5878,5941,6007,6069,6132,6195,6258,6321,6384,6447,6510,6577,6639,6702,6770,6837,6903,7024,7125,7226,7331,7437,7534,7637,7735,7835,7931,8005,8105,8206,8307,8406,8516,8619,8694,8793,8884,8996,9107,9201,9304,9367,9430,9496,9563,9620,9686,9749,9810,9873,9936,9985,10048,10111,10179,10242,10305,10370,10433,10496,10549,10628,10711,10815,10930,11035,11140,11245,11354,11459,11564,11673,11778,11882,11990,12095,12200,12309,12421,12530,12640,12703,12765,12883,12946,13009,13110,13208,13290,13389,13486,13587,13678],{"id":2530,"date":2604,"date_gmt":2604,"guid":3877,"modified":3879,"modified_gmt":3879,"slug":2605,"status":3880,"type":2606,"link":2607,"title":3881,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"comment_status":21,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":3882,"class_list":3883,"acf":3887,"description":3888,"caption":3890,"alt_text":16,"media_type":2612,"mime_type":2613,"media_details":3891,"post":2516,"source_url":2644,"filename":2643,"filesize":2618,"_links":3900,"_embedded":3917},{"rendered":3878},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2026\u002F06\u002Fbuild-llc-park-modern-night-01-hdr-02-photo-by-buildllc.jpg.webp","2026-06-19T18:39:45","inherit",{"rendered":2609},{"_acf_changed":17},[3884,2606,3885,3886,27],"post-1018","type-attachment","status-inherit",[],{"rendered":3889},"\u003Cp 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Zoning: Hidden Code Barriers to Middle-Scale Housing",860,{"category":7304,"summary":7305,"authors":7306,"additional_information":7307,"table_of_contents":7308,"summary_group":7309,"full_report_group":7310,"related_footnotes":7311},"practitioner","\u003Cp>A practitioner’s perspective for\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nCenter for Building in North America\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Authored by John Zeanah\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nEdited by Stephen Smith\u003C\u002Fp>\r\n\u003Cp>Designed by Studio Folder\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nSeptember 2025\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>John Zeanah\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nMemphis, Tennessee\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\n\u003Ca href=\"mailto:john@intervalplans.com\">john@intervalplans.com\u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cdiv>0 About the author\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>Acknowledgements\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>1 Background: Why Barriers Beyond Zoning Matter for Middle-Scale Housing\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2 Case Study: Malone Park Commons Building SmallMultifamily, One Obstacle at a Time\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.1 From House-Sized Buildings to Commercial-Scale Requirements\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.2 Sprinklers vs. Fire-Rated Separations: A Push for Alternative Fire Safety Compliance\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.3 Lessons from the Ground\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3 Building Code Hurdles: When Housing Meets the Commercial Code\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.1 IBC vs. IRC: The “Apartment” Threshold\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.2 Sprinkler Mandates and Fire Safety Trade-Offs\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.3 Egress and Exiting Challenges\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.4 Accessibility Requirements for Small Multifamily\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.5 Extending Code Reform to Existing Buildings\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.6 Flexibility for Micro Mixed Use\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4 Fire Protection Requirements: Big SafetySystems in Small Buildings\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.1 Commercial Fire Alarm Systems and Detection\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.2 Sprinkler System Types: NFPA 13 vs. 13R vs. 13D\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5 Stormwater Regulations: Managing Water on Small Infill Sites\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.1 On-Site Detention and Drainage Requirements\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.2 Impervious Surface Limits and Grading\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>6 Utility Connection Barriers: Taps, Meters, and Infrastructure\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>6.1 Water Service and Backflow Prevention\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>6.2 Utility Connection Fees and Processes\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>7 Other Local Code Hurdles:Parking, Taxes, Trash, and More\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>7.1 Off-Street Parking Design and Site Layout\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>7.2 Property Tax Classification and Assessments\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>7.3 Waste Collection and Service Rules\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>7.4 HVAC and Mechanical Equipment Placement\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>7.5 Other Odds and Ends\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>8 Action Steps for Planners: Clearing the Pathfor Small Multifamily\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>9 Conclusion: Tying it All Together – Removing Barriers, Realizing Opportunities\u003C\u002Fdiv>",{"sg_file":16,"sg_url":16,"sg_label":16},{"frg_file":7227,"frg_url":16,"frg_label":16},[3810],{"self":7313,"collection":7317,"about":7319,"acf:post":7321,"wp:featuredmedia":7323,"wp:attachment":7326,"curies":7329},[7314],{"href":7280,"targetHints":7315},{"allow":7316},[35],[7318],{"href":7013},[7320],{"href":7016},[7322],{"embeddable":44,"href":3830},[7324],{"embeddable":44,"href":7325},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia\u002F860",[7327],{"href":7328},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=832",[7330],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":7332,"date":7333,"date_gmt":7333,"guid":7334,"modified":7333,"modified_gmt":7333,"slug":7336,"status":3880,"type":2606,"link":7337,"title":7338,"author":2822,"featured_media":20,"comment_status":16,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":7339,"class_list":7340,"acf":7342,"description":7343,"caption":7345,"alt_text":16,"media_type":2612,"mime_type":2861,"media_details":7346,"post":7260,"source_url":7378,"filename":7381,"filesize":7349,"_links":7382,"_embedded":7401},869,"2025-09-10T09:06:09",{"rendered":7335},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67122177__.jpg","image_67122177__","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fcfb-publication\u002Fbeyond-zoninghidden-code-barriers-to-middle-scale-housing\u002Fimage_67122177__\u002F",{"rendered":7336},{"_acf_changed":17},[7341,2606,3885,3886,27],"post-869",[],{"rendered":7344},"\u003Cp 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\u002F>\u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"rendered":16},{"width":3190,"height":3191,"file":9217,"filesize":3193,"sizes":9218,"image_meta":9238},"2025\u002F09\u002Felevators.png",{"medium":9219,"large":9223,"thumbnail":9227,"medium_large":9231,"full":9235},{"file":9220,"width":1172,"height":2622,"filesize":9221,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":9222},"elevators-212x300.png",2605,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Felevators-212x300.png",{"file":9224,"width":3201,"height":2627,"filesize":9225,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":9226},"elevators-724x1024.png",18395,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Felevators-724x1024.png",{"file":9228,"width":2633,"height":2633,"filesize":9229,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":9230},"elevators-150x150.png",800,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Felevators-150x150.png",{"file":9232,"width":2638,"height":3210,"filesize":9233,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":9234},"elevators-768x1086.png",27100,"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Felevators-768x1086.png",{"file":9236,"width":3190,"height":3191,"mime_type":3188,"source_url":9237},"elevators.png","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Felevators.png",{"aperture":2646,"credit":16,"camera":16,"caption":16,"created_timestamp":2646,"copyright":16,"focal_length":2646,"iso":2646,"shutter_speed":2646,"title":16,"orientation":2646,"keywords":9239},[],820,{"self":9242,"collection":9247,"about":9249,"author":9251,"replies":9253,"wp:attached-to":9256,"curies":9259},[9243],{"href":9244,"targetHints":9245},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia\u002F822",{"allow":9246},[35],[9248],{"href":2655},[9250],{"href":2658},[9252],{"embeddable":44,"href":45},[9254],{"embeddable":44,"href":9255},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcomments?post=822",[9257],{"embeddable":44,"post_type":6974,"id":9240,"href":9258},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcfb-publication\u002F820",[9260],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"author":9262,"wp:attached-to":9273},[9263],{"id":19,"name":3324,"url":16,"description":16,"link":3325,"slug":3326,"avatar_urls":9264,"acf":9265,"_links":9266},{"24":3328,"48":3329,"96":3330},[],{"self":9267,"collection":9271},[9268],{"href":45,"targetHints":9269},{"allow":9270},[35],[9272],{"href":2601},[9274],{"id":9240,"date":9275,"slug":1101,"type":6974,"link":9276,"title":9277,"featured_media":9202,"acf":9278,"_links":9286},"2025-09-09T20:30:17","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fcfb-publication\u002Felevators\u002F",{"rendered":242},{"category":7002,"summary":9279,"authors":9280,"additional_information":9281,"table_of_contents":9282,"summary_group":9283,"full_report_group":9284,"related_footnotes":9285},"\u003Cp>The United States of America is a sprawling, car-centric country, but one form of mass transit stands out above the rest in sheer ridership: the elevator.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Authored by Stephen Smith\u003Cbr \u002F>\r\nFirst edition, May 2024\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Research help by Kuba Snopek and Petro Vladimirov in Poland with Direction, Geli Tadonki in France, and Moon Hoon in South Korea.\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cdiv>0 Preface\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>1 Introduction\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>1.1 Notes on methodology\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>1.2 Acknowledgements\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2 Access\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.1 Stock\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.1.1 Walk-ups and elevator buildings\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.1.2 Elevator retrofits in existing buildings\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.1.3 Multifamily elevator ratios\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.2 Cost\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.2.1 New installation costs\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.2.2 Post-installation costs\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.3 Work timelines\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.4 Safety outcomes\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.4.1 Elevator safety\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>2.4.2 Alternative transportation safety\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3 Cabin size\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.1 Europe\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.2 Asia and Oceania\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.3 United States\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.3.1 Wheelchair turning radius requirement\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.3.2 Stretcher requirement\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.4 Cost impact of cabin sizes\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.4.1 New elevator installation costs\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>3.4.2 Elevator hoistway costs\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4 Labor\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.1 Europe\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.1.1 Training\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.1.2 Subcontracting and migrant labor\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.1.3 Case study: France\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.2 United States\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.2.1 Training\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>4.2.2 Labor relations\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5 Technical codes and standards\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.1 ASME A17.1\u002FCSA B44: North America’s standard\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.2 EN 81\u002FISO 8100: Europe’s global standard\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.3 Differences between standards and consequences for North America\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.3.1 Machine room less elevators\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.3.2 Landing doors\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.3.3 Two-way audiovisual communication\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.3.4 Toe guards\u002Faprons\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.3.5 Elevator lobbies and hoistway opening protection\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>5.3.6 Alternative testing\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>6 Recommendations for reform\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>6.1 Cabin size requirements\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>6.2 Technical codes and standards\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>6.3 Labor\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>6.4 U.S. federal government role\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>7 Areas for further research\u003C\u002Fdiv>\r\n\u003Cdiv>Bibliography\u003C\u002Fdiv>",{"sg_file":3100,"sg_url":16,"sg_label":3101},{"frg_file":3103,"frg_url":16,"frg_label":2950},[3845],{"self":9287,"collection":9291,"about":9293,"acf:post":9295,"wp:featuredmedia":9297,"wp:attachment":9299,"curies":9302},[9288],{"href":9258,"targetHints":9289},{"allow":9290},[35],[9292],{"href":7013},[9294],{"href":7016},[9296],{"embeddable":44,"href":3863},[9298],{"embeddable":44,"href":9244},[9300],{"href":9301},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=820",[9303],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":9305,"date":9306,"date_gmt":9306,"guid":9307,"modified":9306,"modified_gmt":9306,"slug":9309,"status":3880,"type":2606,"link":9310,"title":9311,"author":51,"featured_media":20,"comment_status":16,"ping_status":21,"template":16,"meta":9313,"class_list":9314,"acf":9316,"description":9317,"caption":9319,"alt_text":16,"media_type":4098,"mime_type":4099,"media_details":9320,"post":457,"source_url":9338,"filename":9339,"filesize":9337,"_links":9340,"_embedded":9355},817,"2025-09-02T02:14:52",{"rendered":9308},"http:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FE24-24-2.pdf","e24-24-2","https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fe24-24-2\u002F",{"rendered":9312},"E24-24-2",{"_acf_changed":17},[9315,2606,3885,3886,27],"post-817",[],{"rendered":9318},"\u003Cp 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Hidden Cost of Trash",{"rendered":2702,"protected":17},{"_acf_changed":17},[13877,6974,13878,26,2540,27],"post-979","type-cfb-publication",{"category":7002,"summary":13880,"authors":2713,"additional_information":16,"table_of_contents":16,"summary_group":13881,"full_report_group":13882,"related_footnotes":16},"\u003Cp>The Center for Building partnered with the Center for Zero Waste Design to calculate, for the first time, the costs to building owners of New York City's particularly laborious method of waste collection and handling.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"sg_file":16,"sg_url":16,"sg_label":16},{"frg_file":16,"frg_url":2716,"frg_label":2717},{"self":13884,"collection":13889,"about":13891,"wp:featuredmedia":13893,"wp:attachment":13895,"curies":13898},[13885],{"href":13886,"targetHints":13887},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fcfb-publication\u002F979",{"allow":13888},[35],[13890],{"href":7013},[13892],{"href":7016},[13894],{"embeddable":44,"href":4714},[13896],{"href":13897},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-json\u002Fwp\u002Fv2\u002Fmedia?parent=979",[13899],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":7260,"date":7297,"date_gmt":7297,"guid":13901,"modified":13903,"modified_gmt":13903,"slug":7298,"status":10,"type":6974,"link":7299,"title":13904,"content":13905,"featured_media":7302,"template":16,"meta":13907,"class_list":13908,"acf":13910,"_links":13914},{"rendered":13902},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=cfb-publication&p=832","2025-09-28T21:26:22",{"rendered":7301},{"rendered":13906,"protected":17},"\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">About the author\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">John Zeanah, AICP is the Chief of Development and Infrastructure for the City of Memphis, Tennessee. In this role, he leads a cross-functional team of agencies responsible for planning, housing, transportation, public works, and community and economic development. Prior to this role, John served as the Director of the Memphis and Shelby County Division of Planning and Development for over seven years. Among his accomplishments, John led the development and adoption of the Memphis 3.0 Comprehensive Plan, the City’s first comprehensive plan in 40 years and winner of the American Planning Association’s Daniel Burnham Award of Excellence for a Comprehensive Plan in 2020 and a Charter Award from the Congress for the New Urbanism in 2021. John is also Principal and Owner of Interval, LLC, a planning and policy advisory firm that specializes in helping public sector clients better understand, implement, and improve their plans, policies, codes, regulations, and processes.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Acknowledgements\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A special thanks to Eric Kronberg, Rita Anderson, and Andre Jones for providing review, comments, and insight to help shape this article.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Introduction\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In recent years, planners have made zoning reform a key priority to enable housing supply, including “missing middle” housing. In support of these efforts, the American Planning Association partnered with the National League of Cities to produce the \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.planning.org\u002Fpublications\u002Fdocument\u002F9289884\u002F\">Housing Supply Accelerator Playbook\u003C\u002Fa>, a collection of strategies to advance housing supply across multiple dimensions, including regulatory reform. While much of the planning profession’s efforts toward this goal have focused on zoning reform, planners across the country are discovering that codes and regulations other than zoning can pose equally daunting barriers. Small multifamily projects – from triplexes and fourplexes up to mid-rise apartments – may win the zoning battle but lose the code war. Building codes, fire codes, stormwater rules, and utility requirements can all unintentionally penalize a small multifamily infill project as if it were a high-rise development. Even where zoning now allows middle-scale housing, these projects may remain hard to build because hidden regulatory hurdles drive up costs or complexity beyond what small developers can handle.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This article explores the barriers beyond zoning that can hold back development of middle-scale housing. It begins with a background on why these lesser-known codes matter for housing diversity. This is followed by a case study of a project in Memphis, highlighting the non-zoning barriers posed to the development of an infill collection of cottages and small apartment buildings, and how they were overcome. Next, the article delves into specific categories of barriers, from building codes and fire safety mandates to infrastructure and local ordinances, explaining how each can impede middle-scale housing projects. Finally, it concludes with an Action Steps for Planners section, offering implementable strategies for reforming codes and coordinating across departments to unlock middle-scale housing development.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Planners are becoming more interested in the role of building codes in enabling or preventing middle-scale housing, but often lack a building code background or the authority to effect change in their cities and towns. This article is intended for planners with a limited background in building codes who are looking for a practical, policy-oriented overview of how building codes and other regulations beyond zoning affect housing supply and affordability. The goal is to equip planning professionals to recognize these obstacles and work proactively on solutions. By looking beyond zoning to the finer-grained codes and regulations, communities can truly welcome the gentle density of small multifamily that so many zoning reforms aim to permit.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. Background: Why Barriers Beyond Zoning Matter for Middle-Scale Housing\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Many communities have made great strides in reforming exclusionary zoning. Single-family-only zones are being opened up to duplexes, triplexes, and other types of housing, from Minneapolis and Portland, Oregon, to recent statewide initiatives in California, Washington, Montana, and Maine. These zoning changes are intended to spur the development of “missing middle” housing, typically defined as small multifamily structures between single-family homes and large apartment buildings. This middle-scale housing can help communities gently increase density, improve affordability, and expand housing choice in walkable neighborhoods.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, communities are also finding that simply allowing a fourplex on paper does not guarantee that one will be built. Planners are beginning to realize that even where zoning allows small multifamily housing, other codes often make it infeasible to build. Building construction codes, fire safety mandates, stormwater regulations, and utility standards were written mainly with either single-family homes or much larger buildings in mind, not the middle-scale projects in between. As a result, a triplex, an eight-unit cottage court, or even a 24-unit mid-rise apartment can unintentionally trigger “big building” requirements, which add significant cost or complexity and negate the modest scale advantage of these projects.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This artificial divide often starts when a project crosses the threshold between two and three units. National model codes classify any building with three or more dwelling units as an apartment building, subject to the full commercial building code, the International Building Code (IBC). In many instances, other codes and regulations follow suit. In contrast, most one- and two-family homes fall under the simpler International Residential Code (IRC) and often simpler stormwater or utility requirements as well. A fourplex may be treated like a 40-unit apartment in many respects, requiring features such as fire sprinklers, commercial-grade alarm systems, accessibility measures, heightened design load requirements, and often more stringent stormwater management improvements. These requirements, particularly life safety provisions, may be justified for larger buildings and sites, but for a small multifamily project, they can be burdensome relative to the risks. The outcome is that many missing middle projects do not pencil out or become technically challenging, even if allowed by zoning. A study in California prepared for the San Francisco Planning Department, for instance, found that five- to 10-unit infill buildings are often not financially feasible without subsidies, partly due to per-unit cost increases from code requirements.\u003Csup>1\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"683\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FRC-28.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-836\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FRC-28.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FRC-28-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FRC-28-768x512.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Memphis Mayor Paul Young, Malone Park Commons developer Andre Jones, and then-President Rosalyn Willis of the Community Redevelopment Agency.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In short, codes beyond zoning can inadvertently undermine the very housing types that zoning reform is trying to enable. This is especially true for middle-scale housing: small enough that developers cannot achieve big economies of scale, yet large enough to fall into more stringent regulatory regimes. These projects are typically undertaken by local, often first-time or small-scale developers rather than large professional firms, who may struggle to navigate complex code compliance and hefty upfront infrastructure costs. The risk is that zoning reforms yield far less housing on the ground than expected, due to the range of additional code requirements that are not typically on planners’ radars.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Fortunately, awareness of these hidden barriers is growing. Innovative jurisdictions have begun to adjust building codes and standards to better calibrate requirements for small multifamily buildings. States like Tennessee and North Carolina recently changed laws to ease code hurdles for three- to four-unit structures. City agencies are working with utilities to modify archaic policies – for example, redefining when a building is considered “commercial.” In my own experience, working with the Malone Park Commons project in Memphis, Tennessee, provided me with a case study in overcoming these obstacles, which also prompted local code amendments and even state legislation. By understanding why a fourplex could trigger commercial fire codes or a cottage court could trigger extra utility fees, planners can better advocate for sensible and proportional codes that scale with the size of the development, allowing middle-scale housing a better chance to get built. The following sections explore the most common categories of these barriers beyond zoning, with examples and lessons for reform.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. Case Study: Malone Park Commons – Building Small Multifamily, One Obstacle at a Time\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1440\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMalone-Park-2-scaled.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-837\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMalone-Park-2-scaled.jpeg 2560w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMalone-Park-2-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMalone-Park-2-1024x576.jpeg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMalone-Park-2-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMalone-Park-2-1536x864.jpeg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMalone-Park-2-2048x1152.jpeg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Malone Park Commons.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Malone Park Commons, located in Memphis, Tennessee, is a 35-unit cottage court-style development that has become a proving ground for the kinds of hurdles beyond zoning code that small-scale multifamily housing faces. Designed as a model for missing middle housing in walkable neighborhoods, the project aimed to deliver compact, modestly priced units in an infill context – but found itself repeatedly blocked by legacy building, fire, utility, and tax regulations written for much larger-scale development.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The first phase of Malone Park Commons consisted of eleven detached cottages arranged around a shared green space. Later phases introduced two live-work fourplex buildings and four purely residential fourplexes, transitioning seamlessly to conventional detached single-family homes. This demonstrates that it is possible to build “gentle density” with thoughtful urban design. But the path to getting those units approved, permitted, and built exposed a web of regulatory obstacles that ultimately led to state legislation and local code reform.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.1 From House-Sized Buildings to Commercial-Scale Requirements\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The design of Malone Park Commons focused on human-scale housing types: small detached or semi-attached structures no taller than two stories, with private front doors, porches, and pedestrian courtyards. But as soon as the unit count for any given building exceeded two, the development was brought under the commercial building code regime of the International Building Code (IBC) and more stringent local regulations. That meant:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>Full NFPA 13 or 13R sprinkler systems, requiring costly water infrastructure\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Backflow preventers for each fourplex, triggering equipment, and maintenance costs\u003Csup>2\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Professional stamped plans and structural designs that would not have been needed under the International Residential Code (IRC)\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Fire alarm panels and pull stations\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In practice, a fourplex built at Malone Park Commons was held to the same building code standard as a 35-unit apartment building, despite having a much lower height, occupancy load, and risk profile.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One of the most frustrating surprises for the developer came from utility classifications. Because the fourplex buildings were technically “apartments,” the local water utility treated each one as a commercial account. That meant:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>Requiring a backflow preventer for each building, at a cost of roughly $3,000-$5,000 per installation\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Applying commercial water tap fees, even though the buildings functioned more like townhomes\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Assessing base service fees and meter costs that were much higher than for a single-family home\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>According to project developer Andre Jones, these water infrastructure costs were unexpected, unscalable, and financially destabilizing – significant obstacles to completing later phases. The developers argued that form and scale, not just the number of units, should determine how utilities classify a building.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.2 Sprinklers vs. Fire-Rated Separations: A Push for Alternative Fire Safety Compliance\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One of the most consequential debates centered on the requirement for fire sprinklers in small multifamily buildings. Malone Park’s developers argued that their live-work and purely residential fourplex buildings, capped at two stories and designed with ample separation, could achieve equivalent or better fire safety by using two-hour-rated separations between units and installing smoke alarms.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Initially, this would have been allowed under a local amendment made to the Memphis and Shelby County building codes, but this quickly ran into issues with the state fire marshal’s interpretation of the code. Persistent advocacy from a network of local partners led to a policy breakthrough: in 2024, the Tennessee legislature passed HB 2787, which explicitly permits residential buildings of up to four units and under 5,000 square feet and three stories to be built without a sprinkler system if two-hour-rated assemblies are provided instead.\u003Csup>3 \u003C\u002Fsup>This legalized the trade-off that the local code amendment had set initially and has now paved the way for other small infill projects across the state to avoid unnecessary costs while maintaining life safety standards.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.3 Lessons from the Ground\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Malone Park Commons illustrates just how deep the regulatory barriers to small multifamily development go. Even a well-zoned site with community support and good design can be undone by fire protection rules, utility service classifications, and misaligned building codes. The developers did not just encounter these problems – they documented and explained them, using their experience to build support for reform. For local planners, Malone Park Commons became both a cause and a learning environment, leading to not only real change but also a collaborative partnership between planners and developers to better understand the breadth of code hurdles holding back missing middle housing and what to do about them.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The partnership between planners and the Malone Park Commons developers directly led to state legislation that provides relief from costly sprinkler requirements, modified utility rules for backflow prevention, and administrative flexibility for locating ground floor retail and services in smaller mixed use buildings.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Today, Malone Park is more than a housing development – it’s a proof point for how to modernize code for missing middle housing. It shows that with the right policies in place, cities can allow incremental, human-scale housing to be built without compromising safety or quality. It shows how planners, code officials, developers, utility providers, and lawmakers can work together to update the rules that no longer fit the housing we want to build.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. Building Code Hurdles: When Housing Meets the Commercial Code\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One of the first barriers a small multifamily project encounters is the building code itself. In most jurisdictions, the moment you propose a building with three or more dwellings under one roof, you leave the realm of the residential code (IRC) and enter the International Building Code (IBC), sometimes called the commercial code. The IBC is a comprehensive code designed for everything from apartments and offices to airports and stadiums. As Aaron Lubeck, a North Carolina-based developer, puts it, “The exact same codebook in America governs a triplex and an airport.”\u003Csup>4\u003C\u002Fsup> Despite some hyperbole on his part (different occupancy sections exist in the IBC), Lubeck captures the fundamental mismatch: the IBC’s provisions are often over-scaled for a house-sized building with a handful of units.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.1 IBC vs. IRC: The “Apartment” Threshold\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Under the IBC, a small multifamily building is typically classified as a Group R-2 occupancy (apartments).\u003Csup>5\u003C\u002Fsup> This classification triggers a host of requirements that do not apply to one- or two-family dwellings under the IRC. For example, the model IBC mandates that R-2 buildings be equipped with automatic sprinkler systems\u003Csup>6\u003C\u002Fsup> and, for buildings above three stories, have two separate exits for occupants placed at a distance from each other, among other provisions.\u003Csup>7\u003C\u002Fsup> By contrast, the IRC treats a duplex almost like a single-family home, with no sprinkler mandate in most states and simpler egress – often just doors and windows for each unit.\u003Csup>8\u003C\u002Fsup> The leap in complexity from duplex to triplex is dramatic.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Key differences that apply once you cross the threshold between two and three units include:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Professional Design Requirements:\u003C\u002Fstrong> A small apartment building typically must be designed and stamped by a licensed architect or engineer to meet IBC structural and life-safety standards, as well as state licensure rules that often kick in at a similar threshold. A single-family or duplex can often be built to simpler prescriptive standards without full structural design requirements, including engineered calculations for wind, seismic, and lateral loads.\u003Csup>9\u003C\u002Fsup> Separate state laws may also introduce requirements – for example, Tennessee requires a registered design professional to prepare plans and specifications for residential occupancies with more than two stories or 5,000 square feet of gross floor area.\u003Csup>10\u003C\u002Fsup> This means higher soft costs for design and higher hard costs for certain structural elements in a small multifamily building that may be the same size as a large single-family home. Jurisdictions should explore allowing small multifamily to use IRC prescriptive structural provisions for elements like wind, snow, and seismic to avoid requiring costly engineering, as long as the building is modest in height and wood-framed.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Fire-Rated Separation and Construction Type\u003C\u002Fstrong>: The IBC may require higher fire-resistance-rated construction between units, such as one-hour or two-hour fire-rated wall separations and floors, and limits on wood frame construction for multifamily buildings.\u003Csup>11\u003C\u002Fsup> The IRC also requires fire separation (e.g. one-hour separations for duplex common walls), but IBC standards can be more extensive. These assemblies can increase material and labor costs. We’ll discuss later how some codes allow either sprinklers or thicker fire separations as compliance alternatives for small projects.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Height and Area Limits\u003C\u002Fstrong>: While small missing middle buildings are naturally limited in size, the IBC places restrictions on maximum building height based on occupancy type, construction type, and sprinkler system present.\u003Csup>12\u003C\u002Fsup> The IRC has height limits too (three stories for a townhouse, for example), but is tailored to house-sized structures.\u003Csup>13\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Energy Code Differences\u003C\u002Fstrong>: In some cases, multifamily buildings are subject to commercial energy codes, which can result in different insulation, HVAC, and testing requirements compared to the residential energy code for single-family homes (IECC). This can be another subtle cost increase for the same physical structure.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FDJI_0430-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-838\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FDJI_0430-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FDJI_0430-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FDJI_0430-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FDJI_0430-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FDJI_0430-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Malone Park Commons. The buildings in the middle fall under the local adoption of the International Residential Code and other single-family-oriented rules, while the buildings on the left and right sides fall under the local adoption of the International Building Code and more commercially oriented rules.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In summary, the code divide between IRC and IBC acts as a hard line beyond two units (or one unit if the dwelling is attached). Planners have begun to realize that if we want a house-scale multi-unit building to be built as inexpensively as a large house, we may need to adjust where that line is drawn. In 2021, Memphis and Shelby County, Tennessee, amended their building code to allow up to six-unit buildings to be reviewed under a local amendment to the International Residential Code (IRC), also known as the “Large Home Amendment.” This local change recognized that a six-unit, two-story building can be safely built to a modified residential code, rather than treating it like a large apartment complex. However, the Tennessee State Fire Marshal’s office disagreed. To resolve the dispute, Memphis pursued state legislation on sprinkler reform instead, but kept conversations open with the State Fire Marshal on potential future amendments. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Similarly, in 2023, North Carolina passed legislation (HB 488) requiring that triplexes and fourplexes be governed by the residential code, rather than the commercial code. In 2025, the City of Dallas updated their codes to permit up to eight units in the residential code. By making similar changes, jurisdictions can eliminate many of the costly requirements that were previously automatic for smaller multifamily projects – a reform expected to significantly lower construction costs for missing middle housing. These pioneering reforms at the state and local level illustrate a key principle: \u003Cem>calibrate building code standards to building scale\u003C\u002Fem>. A small plex house should not need to meet the same code checklist as a larger apartment building.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"727\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-01-1024x727.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-842\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-01-1024x727.png 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-01-300x213.png 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-01-768x546.png 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-01-1536x1091.png 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-01.png 1806w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"599\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-02-1024x599.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-843\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-02-1024x599.png 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-02-300x176.png 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-02-768x449.png 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-02-1536x899.png 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FMP_Plan-02-2048x1198.png 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">\u003Csup>Elevations and floor plans for fourplexes at Malone Park Commons, based on original drawings by Bruce B. Tolar, PA.\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.2 Sprinkler Mandates and Fire Safety Trade-Offs\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Perhaps the most notorious building code hurdle for small multifamily housing is the automatic sprinkler requirement. Sprinkler systems are effective tools for reducing property loss in the event of a fire. They are also effective systems for life safety, though other, equally effective methods exist. But sprinkler systems also add considerable cost and require ongoing maintenance, as well as sufficient water pressure and infrastructure. Under the IBC, generally applicable to buildings with three or more units, any new R-2 multifamily building must have an automatic fire sprinkler system in accordance with NFPA standards.\u003Csup>14\u003C\u002Fsup> By contrast, the sprinkler requirements for one- and two-family dwellings have been removed from state adoptions of the IRC in 46 states, and two other states have limited requirements based on the size of the home.\u003Csup>15\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For small projects, sprinklers can be a make-or-break factor. It’s not just the cost of the pipes and sprinkler heads – the need for a water supply line, often a dedicated larger-diameter service, backflow preventer, and possibly a water meter upgrade or pump, can escalate costs. In neighborhoods with low water pressure, a small infill development might even need the city to upgrade the water main or install costly fire pumps or tanks. Sprinkler installation alone can cost tens of thousands of dollars for a fourplex, and a commercial-grade backflow prevention device for the system can cost several thousand more to install on a small building. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One of the main reasons behind Memphis’s Large Home building code amendment was to allow three-family and four-family buildings under 5,000 square feet to trade two-hour-rated separations between units in place of sprinklers. When this local amendment was met with disapproval from the Tennessee State Fire Marshal’s Office, the planning office partnered with local homebuilders and housing advocates to write state legislation to codify this exception. In 2024, the Tennessee General Assembly passed HB 2787\u002FSB 2635 specifically to enable such flexibility. This law not only allowed Memphis to keep the most critical piece of its local Large Home Amendment but also helped other jurisdictions in Tennessee see that increased fire-rated separations plus smoke alarms in a small building can protect residents while reducing costs, thereby enabling more missing middle housing.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It’s important to emphasize that the value of sprinklers is not in question, but rather a question of cost, proportionality, and practicality. For small multifamily structures that require a complete NFPA-compliant sprinkler system, along with associated water infrastructure, the cost per unit is considerable. The broader trend is recognizing that a one-size-fits-all fire safety approach can price small projects out; thus, offering alternative compliance or scaled requirements is key. We will also revisit sprinklers in the fire code section, since the type of system (NFPA 13, 13R, or 13D) matters for small buildings.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It should be emphasized here, however, that increasing fire separation \u003Cem>does increase construction costs\u003C\u002Fem>. A builder not only needs to factor in the cost to increase the thickness of separation walls and ceilings but also cost increases for structural reinforcement to support thicker separations. When considering thicker separation to offset sprinkler requirements, make sure alternative compliance options do not overcorrect and increase the cost burden. Too much additional structural load can not only wipe out any savings from removing sprinklers, but it can also wipe out savings from moving a small multifamily building from the IBC to the IRC, too.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.3 Egress and Exiting Challenges\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Another significant building code hurdle is designing adequate means of egress (exits) for a small multifamily structure. The IBC requires that occupants have at least two ways to exit a building in an emergency, which typically means two separate stairs or exit paths, when certain occupant loads or building configurations are exceeded. Multifamily buildings above three stories in height require two exits, generally leading to two enclosed stairwells on opposite ends of a central common corridor. \u003Csup>16\u003C\u002Fsup> Small buildings can get caught by these rules in ways that complicate their design and footprint.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Providing two staircases in a small building consumes a lot of floor space and construction costs, which may make the units smaller or fewer in number. In many traditional “missing middle” building types, like a small walk-up apartment, there was often only a single staircase, sometimes with exterior fire escapes. Building codes in most of the United States, unlike most of those abroad, have historically required a second stair above a low-rise height, and the latest generation of codes have made the standards that the second exit must be built to stricter. Some cities and states, however, are rethinking this for small-footprint mid-rise buildings.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Seattle is notable for having long allowed single-stair apartment buildings up to six stories at four units per floor. The benefits of single-stair buildings are that they can be designed safely, including with automatic sprinkler systems, and allow for much more efficient and livable layouts. They also consume less land area, enabling infill construction, and can be delivered at a lower cost per unit. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Several cities and states have followed Seattle’s lead. In 2023, Washington State passed SB 5491, directing the state building code council to develop code changes to allow single-stair multifamily buildings in the state’s building code, applying to jurisdictions outside of Seattle. Seattle’s building official submitted a proposal to the state’s code to allow such buildings under similar but slightly stricter conditions than Seattle itself allows, in an optional appendix to be adopted at the discretion of local jurisdictions.\u003Csup>17\u003C\u002Fsup> A bill was passed in Tennessee in 2024, allowing local governments to adopt a set of defined requirements to permit up to six stories with four units per floor served by a single staircase was similarly passed in Tennessee in 2024. As of this writing, Memphis, Knoxville, and Jackson, Tennessee, have adopted the new provisions.\u003Csup>18\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In 2025, a study by the Pew Charitable Trusts found that single-stair buildings, such as those permitted in Seattle and Tennessee, were just as safe as their dual-staircase counterparts.\u003Csup>19\u003C\u002Fsup> The study analyzed fire death rates in four- to six-story single-stair buildings constructed since 2012 in New York City and Seattle. It found that the fire fatality rate in these buildings was equivalent to that in other residential structures, with no deaths attributed to the lack of a second stairway. The report attributes this safety record to modern fire safety features, including fire-rated separations, self-closing doors, smoke detectors, and fire sprinklers. Additionally, research from the Netherlands, where single-stairway buildings are common, supports these findings, showing comparable fire safety outcomes. The report concludes that, when built with contemporary safety measures and design limitations, single-stairway buildings can safely contribute to increasing housing supply.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The takeaway for planners is that egress rules can be relaxed for small-scale buildings without sacrificing safety, and doing so can meaningfully reduce construction complexity. Until such reforms are widespread, however, many missing middle designs are forced into awkward shapes or lower heights and unit counts to accommodate the requirement for two means of egress for buildings above a low-rise height.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In summary, exiting requirements meant for larger buildings can constrain the form of a middle-scale housing project. Planners should be aware that an extra staircase and exit corridor can consume 7 percent of a small-footprint building’s floor area and can account for 10 percent its total construction cost, which in turn drives up per-unit costs or reduces unit size.\u003Csup>20\u003C\u002Fsup> By advocating for code flexibility, such as single-stair allowances with appropriate safety compensations, planners can help unlock more creative and efficient small-scale designs.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.4 Accessibility Requirements for Small Multifamily\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Accessibility is another critical factor that often becomes a concern once a building reaches a certain number of units. The Federal Fair Housing Act (FHA) requires that in any new multi-unit residential building with four or more units, a certain baseline of accessible or “adaptable” design features be provided in the units and common areas. This includes features like accessible entrances, wider doors and hallways, reachable light switches, and bathrooms that can be adapted for use by someone in a wheelchair, though not fully outfitted as a “Type A” accessible unit. In a building without an elevator, these requirements apply to all ground-floor units; if there is an elevator, they apply to all units in the building.\u003Csup>21\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For a developer accustomed to building single-family homes, these accessibility mandates can be a new world. A fourplex must be planned with no steps at ground floor entrances, a wheelchair-friendly path through the unit, and reinforced bathroom walls for future grab bars, among other details. These may not be cost-prohibitive changes, but they do require thoughtful design and sometimes more significant site work considerations. For instance, placing a fourplex on a narrow infill lot may require grading or a ramp to ensure that at least one unit has an accessible entry if the lot slopes. Small-scale builders may also need to hire design professionals to ensure compliance, which adds to soft costs.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In our context of market-rate missing middle housing, the main point is that the fourth unit triggers federal accessibility design requirements. Duplexes and triplexes are exempt from FHA rules, so a lot of small developers never encounter this until they propose a quadplex. It’s a worthwhile requirement to provide inclusive housing, but it is another regulatory learning curve and cost factor at the small scale. Some developers might respond by limiting projects to three units to avoid the perceived complexity. Others proceed, but they must incorporate features that slightly increase construction costs and possibly reduce rentable square footage.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">From a planner’s perspective, ensuring that missing middle housing is accessible to people with disabilities is an important equity goal – new housing options should serve all community members. Thus, finding ways to meet accessibility requirements without derailing projects is key. One strategy is to provide technical assistance or template plans that already comply with federal guidelines, so small builders do not have to start from scratch. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F5788948148632845410-1024x576.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-844\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F5788948148632845410-1024x576.jpeg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F5788948148632845410-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F5788948148632845410-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F5788948148632845410-1536x864.jpeg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F5788948148632845410.jpeg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">When a building has four units, the Fair Housing Act requires accessibility for ground floor apartments, fulfilled here with a ramp visible on the far right, in addition to the more traditional front porch accessed by steps.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.5 Extending Code Reform to Existing Buildings\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Many of the barriers that prevent small-scale multifamily development under the International Building Code (IBC) also show up in the reuse and conversion of existing buildings, a process which is governed by the International Existing Building Code (IEBC). If jurisdictions only update the IBC, they risk limiting reform to new construction while continuing to burden or even block adaptive reuse projects that could otherwise deliver gentle density through incremental infill.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Planners should work with building officials to ensure that code flexibility extends to change-of-use and renovation projects. Converting a single-family home, small commercial building, or duplex into a triplex or fourplex often triggers a change in occupancy classification to R-2, which under the IEBC can require significant upgrades, including full sprinkler systems, egress stair duplication, accessibility retrofits, and structural reinforcement, even when the underlying building footprint and form remain modest.\u003Csup>22\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Model IEBC amendments can close this gap. For instance, jurisdictions can explicitly allow small multifamily reuse projects to comply with the same fire protection trade-offs allowed for new construction. Planners can also support allowing IRC-based structural provisions for wood-frame buildings under a certain height and limiting required accessibility upgrades.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Emerging best practices also suggest incorporating modern single-stair egress provisions into the IEBC, such as those adopted in Tennessee, for buildings up to six stories when sprinklers and travel distance limits are met. These reforms recognize that life safety can be maintained through performance-based standards without imposing commercial-scale interventions on inherently low-risk, human-scaled buildings.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The key is consistency: if a new fourplex can be built under simplified code pathways, then converting an old house into one should not require a more complex and expensive compliance route. Aligning IEBC amendments with new construction reforms sends a clear message that jurisdictions value adaptive reuse and understand the critical role of small, existing buildings in addressing housing needs.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.6 Flexibility for Micro Mixed Use\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Small multifamily buildings in walkable areas can be ideal locations for corner stores, live-work studios, offices, or small-scale service uses – uses that contribute to neighborhood vitality. Yet in many jurisdictions, building and fire codes treat any ground-floor commercial space as a higher-intensity use that triggers commercial-scale upgrades. For example, when Malone Park Commons wanted to lease ground floor space in their live-work buildings to commercial tenants, they learned the code required that they upgrade the sprinkler system from 13R to a full NFPA 13 system. For small buildings, these requirements often make mixed-use development infeasible, especially when the commercial space is no more than 500 to 800 square feet.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">To enable these neighborhood-serving uses while preserving life safety, jurisdictions can amend their building and fire codes to allow limited Group B (business) occupancies within small multifamily buildings, with conditions that reflect actual risk. Group B occupancies cover a wide range of low hazard uses, such as offices, studios, professional services, and small retail, and can often be accommodated without expensive mechanical or suppression systems.\u003Csup>23\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A model amendment might allow a small multifamily building to include a ground-floor Group B occupancy regardless of whether the building is sprinklered provided there are no hazardous materials or cooking operations that would require specialized fire suppression or ventilation, the space has direct access to the exterior, and occupant load is limited to under 50 people. Alternatively, where sprinklers are not required in buildings with one or two dwelling units, the code could be interpreted to apply this to micro mixed use buildings with commercial occupancies as well.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This approach allows commercial uses that are compatible with residential neighbors to operate without overburdening the building with commercial code compliance. It also supports local economic development by enabling flexible live-work and service spaces in walkable neighborhoods, particularly in places where zoning has already been updated to allow mixed use, but where building and fire codes still pose barriers.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Importantly, jurisdictions should coordinate these allowances across departments, including building safety, fire prevention, and planning, to ensure small mixed-use projects are evaluated holistically and not penalized for their modest scale. When designed with guardrails around fire separation and occupant load, these uses pose no more risk than a large home office and can enhance the livability and economic diversity of neighborhoods.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In sum, building code and related federal requirements impose increased requirements once you surpass a certain unit count or size. Because these increased requirements are not proportionate to the scale, these steps can result in significant cost increases that impact a project’s pro forma. Sprinklers, second stairs, accessible design, along with design load requirements and energy code standards, are some of the biggest hurdles that tend to catch middle-scale projects by surprise. The good news is that many jurisdictions are pioneering solutions – from alternative compliance paths to statewide code changes – to right-size these building code requirements for small multifamily buildings. By doing so, cities and states aim to maintain life safety and inclusivity while removing unnecessary cost premiums for missing middle housing. Next, we turn to another set of hurdles: fire codes and the associated systems that often accompany building code issues.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"768\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67160065-768x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-845\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67160065-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67160065-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67160065-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67160065-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67160065-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"768\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67179521-768x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-846\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67179521-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67179521-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67179521-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67179521-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67179521-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Upgrades to the sprinkler system at one of the Malone Park Commons ground floor spaces, before administrative flexibility obviated the need for very small uses.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. Fire Protection Requirements: Big Safety Systems in Small Buildings\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Building and fire codes are closely intertwined and provisions are often duplicated, but it’s worth examining specific fire safety system requirements that often present barriers for small multifamily projects. Beyond the structural elements discussed above, developers of a house-scale apartment building must also navigate fire alarm systems, various types of sprinkler systems, and other code provisions, typically geared toward larger occupancies. These requirements can involve introducing new equipment, requiring technical expertise, ongoing maintenance, and coordination with fire authorities.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.1 Commercial Fire Alarm Systems and Detection\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In a single-family home or duplex, fire protection is usually fairly simple: install residential smoke alarms in each unit (and perhaps carbon monoxide detectors) and you’re done. Small buildings usually are not required to have a centralized fire alarm panel or manual pull stations. However, for multifamily buildings, building and fire codes often mandate a building-wide fire alarm system once a certain threshold is exceeded. Required active systems associated with alarms can include an alarm control panel, hard-wired smoke detectors in common areas, manual pull stations near exits, and audible and visual notification appliances, including horns and strobes throughout the building. The International Fire Code (IFC) and the IBC require such systems for many R-2 buildings, especially if they are three stories or taller, have more than a certain number of units, or if the units do not have their own exits.\u003Csup>24\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For example, a common requirement for small multifamily is the installation of a manual fire alarm system with pull stations and audible and visual alarms unless each unit has its own exterior exit. Even without that exact trigger, local code officials might require an alarm panel if the building is sprinklered or if they feel it is needed for occupant notification. The cost of installing a commercial fire alarm system – including panel, wiring, detectors, strobes, and professional monitoring setup – can be several thousand dollars, plus monthly monitoring and telecommunications fees. More importantly for small developers, it is an additional contractor or trade (fire alarm specialist) and a coordination task that would not exist in a duplex project. It requires electrical drawings, possibly a separate permit, and annual inspections.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Malone Park Commons’ developers ran into this issue in their fourplex buildings. Because their live-work fourplexes were considered apartments, the code required features like pull stations and alarm horns. An alternative would be an amendment to the fire code that requires buildings with more than eight units or more than two stories to install a building-wide fire alarm system with manual pull stations, allowing smaller multifamily buildings to use individual smoke alarms in each unit. This kind of nuanced rule is an example of calibrating requirements based on a proportional scale – a fourplex that is closer in size to a large single-family home or duplex can rely on each unit’s smoke alarms to alert residents, similar to a house, rather than having a costly centralized alarm system.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Another aspect is fire department notification: larger buildings often require a direct connection so that if an alarm or sprinkler system goes off, it alerts the fire department or a monitoring company.\u003Csup>25\u003C\u002Fsup> For a small building owner, setting up and maintaining that monitoring service and the associated telecommunications line (and, sometimes, redundant lines) is a new ongoing cost.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In practical terms, planners should be aware that a small infill developer may face an unexpected requirement to include a fire alarm system with pull stations, or, conversely, may avoid it if local codes have higher thresholds. Technology is also helping; today’s interconnected smoke detectors, with 10-year batteries or wired connections, can cover an entire small building without a traditional panel, and some jurisdictions accept this as meeting the intent for occupant notification. The goal is to ensure early warning in a fire, without over-specifying an institutional-grade system for a small multifamily building.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67122177__-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-869\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67122177__-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67122177__-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67122177__-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67122177__-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002Fimage_67122177__-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">\u003Csup>A manual fire alarm pull station at Malone Commons.\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.2 Sprinkler System Types: NFPA 13 vs. 13R vs. 13D\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Earlier, we discussed when sprinklers should be required. Where they are, the type of sprinkler system matters a great deal in terms of cost and complexity. National standards offer different sprinkler system designs for different building types: \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>NFPA 13\u003C\u002Fstrong> systems are the most comprehensive and are required in most commercial and multifamily buildings. They cover all areas of a building (including attics, closets, and small spaces), and are designed to control a fully developed fire, with an ample water supply and often a fire department connection and alarms. One easy way to visually identify a NFPA 13 (or 13R) system is to look for “hard pipe,” often black steel pipe, running between sprinkler heads. The sprinkler riser, the point where the water line comes into the building with handles and gauges, is very robust.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>NFPA 13R \u003C\u002Fstrong>systems are a scaled-down version of the standard for residential occupancies up to four stories high, commonly found in apartments and condominiums. They are life-safety systems designed mainly to allow occupants to escape. For example, they do not need to cover certain concealed spaces such as attics and have slightly lower water demand than 13 systems. 13R is cheaper than 13 but still requires a reliable water supply and is usually connected to an alarm.   \u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>NFPA 13D \u003C\u002Fstrong>systems are designed for one- and two-family dwellings, as well as single-family townhouses. They are the simplest: designed to protect lives in smaller residential structures. They can often run off the domestic water line, have a 10-minute water supply requirement, and cover fewer areas. NFPA 13D systems allow PEX or “plastic” pipe running between sprinkler heads. They typically do not require backup power or a fire department hookup.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For small multifamily, the code question is: which standard applies? Under the IBC, an R-2 building would normally use NFPA 13 or 13R, but not 13D, because 13D has been historically limited to one- and two-family applications. However, since most jurisdictions do not require sprinkler systems in one- and two-family dwellings, 13D is not used as often as a 13 or 13R system. However, allowing the use of NFPA 13D or modified 13R for middle-scale housing would help to reduce cost and provide adequate protection proportionate to building size. Tennessee’s new law allows localities to use the NFPA 13D standard for triplexes and fourplexes if they choose to mandate sprinklers. This standard could be helpful for small multifamily buildings with up to eight units or that are no more than two stories high. This is significant because a 13D system can often be fed from a regular residential water meter with a small diameter pipe, whereas a 13R or 13 usually requires a larger dedicated water service and a backflow device. The cost difference can be thousands of dollars, and it also affects whether you need a separate tap to the water main.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For example, consider a fourplex in most contexts: under the model codes’ interpretation, it’s R-2, so it needs a 13R system. The developer would then have to pay the city to install a two-inch sprinkler water line with a backflow preventer, possibly a separate meter for that line, and hire a sprinkler contractor to install a multi-zone system covering all rooms. If allowed to use 13D, the builder might simply upsize the domestic water line slightly and run a combined system (multipurpose piping that feeds sprinklers and fixtures) or a simple loop that covers the few required rooms. No separate fire department connection or direct monitoring is typically required for 13D. In a small building, that could cut the sprinkler system cost by more than half.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Some jurisdictions simply exempt small multifamily from sprinklers entirely, but others may find a middle ground of requiring sprinklers but at the 13D level. This could be an acceptable compromise if planners encounter resistance to removing sprinkler requirements from the building official or fire code official. Sprinklers could still be required to enhance safety, but at a scale appropriate for a small multifamily building, avoiding complex equipment, pumps, and risers, as well as their associated maintenance and monitoring. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As planners, knowing the difference between these NFPA standards can allow you to participate in these nuanced policy discussions with code officials in your jurisdiction. Code officials may initially balk at using a less costly system in smaller buildings, but NFPA research has found sprinkler systems to be very effective in preventing fatalities in residential fires without differentiation by type.\u003Csup>26\u003C\u002Fsup> For instance, NFPA reports demonstrate that the vast majority of fatal fires in residences start in living rooms, bedrooms,or kitchens – areas covered by 13D systems.\u003Csup>27 \u003C\u002Fsup>Also, smaller buildings have fewer people and shorter egress travel distances, reducing risk factors.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond sprinklers and alarms, building and fire codes may also impose requirements like fire department access, which can be troublesome on small sites – for example, needing a clear path or driveway for fire trucks within a certain distance of buildings. In tight urban lots, meeting those fire lane or turnaround rules may be impossible, so some leniency or creative solutions, like sprinklering as a trade-off for lack of full access, may be needed. Ensuring the fire department can reach all units might sometimes require installing standpipe connections or modifying site access to accommodate fire apparatus. Generally, if a building is under 30 feet tall and close to the street, fire apparatus access roads (otherwise known as fire lanes) are less of an issue. But many middle-scale housing projects exceed 30 feet in height, so it’s important to know how your codes treat these situations.\u003Csup>28\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">To wrap up fire protection code hurdles, the main themes are the scale and complexity of systems. Small multifamily buildings can be very safe with simpler, lower-cost fire protection solutions, such as interconnected smoke alarms and possibly residential sprinklers, without needing the full suite of commercial fire infrastructure. Both local and state policy innovations are pointing in this direction, aligning fire safety requirements with the true needs of these buildings. Planners should involve fire officials in discussions early when crafting missing middle ordinances. Often, fire marshals are focused on safety outcomes and can be open to alternative methods as long as life safety is maintained. For example, a single-stair building might be acceptable to them if it’s fully sprinklered, has a small floor plate, is constructed of more fire-resistant materials, or has a smoke control system in the stairway, ensuring that one stair remains tenable in a fire. By finding these compromises, planners can help avoid scenarios where the building and\u002For fire codes price out or even effectively ban the very housing types communities want to see.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. Stormwater Regulations: Managing Water on Small Infill Sites\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Stormwater management is less obvious but can be a significant barrier to developing small-scale multifamily housing, especially in urban infill scenarios. Many stormwater regulations were written with larger subdivisions or commercial projects in mind, and they often impose fixed infrastructure requirements that do not scale down easily. A four-unit infill project might be expected to handle stormwater almost like a 40-unit project would, which can be disproportionately expensive or physically unworkable on a small site\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.1 On-Site Detention and Drainage Requirements\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A common requirement in local stormwater ordinances is that new development must detain or retain stormwater runoff on-site so that post-development runoff rates do not exceed pre-development rates. In practice, this means adding features like detention ponds, underground storage tanks, or oversized pipes that temporarily hold rainwater during a storm and release it slowly over time. For small projects on small lots, providing a detention facility can be extremely challenging and often prohibitive. A suburban detention pond might take up a quarter-acre – clearly impossible on a single infill residential lot of roughly the same size. Even underground vaults or infiltration trenches can take up a lot of space and be expensive to construct.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Some cities provide thresholds or exemptions for small disturbances – for example, no detention is required if the total new impervious area is under 10,000 square feet or if the site is below a certain size. But not all do, and even if detention is not required, stormwater quality treatment might be (e.g., bioswales or filter structures to treat the first flush of runoff). Some cities may also exempt one- and two-family buildings from these requirements, applying them only to projects with three or more units. For a missing middle housing project on a 50-ft. × 150-ft. lot, dedicating any space to stormwater detention can be difficult. The site may not have extra space after fitting the building, parking, and required setbacks.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If a small apartment is replacing one single-family house, neighbors and regulators may be concerned that increased roof and pavement area will worsen drainage or flooding. Opponents of middle-scale housing often cite this – the idea that more impervious cover will overload aging drainage systems. In response, some jurisdictions have actually tightened stormwater rules for these infill projects. That approach addresses environmental impacts, but it can also raise construction costs. If every fourplex needs a complex stormwater system, it makes it more expensive to build.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There are strategies to mitigate this barrier – such as fee-in-lieu programs, off-site stormwater management, or shared facilities – that can help. A city might allow a small developer to pay into a fund for regional stormwater solutions instead of building their own pond. Or, if doing multiple cottages on adjacent lots, a shared stormwater facility in the courtyard could serve all units collectively. Planning departments can coordinate with public works to see if scaled requirements or waivers are possible for projects adding only a minor amount of runoff, especially if the existing infrastructure can handle it. Modern low-impact development practices, such as permeable pavers, rain barrels, and green roofs, can also help meet requirements in a space-efficient way – but again, they add cost and maintenance responsibilities that small landlords might struggle with.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.2 Impervious Surface Limits and Grading\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Some codes directly limit the percentage of a lot that can be covered by impervious surfaces, such as roofs and driveways, with the remainder requiring pervious landscaping. This is often in the zoning code as lot coverage rules or in stormwater codes to ensure infiltration. A duplex might be able to comply easily, but a fourplex with parking might push over the limit, forcing design compromises. For example, if a town requires no more than 60% impervious cover on residential lots, adding more units usually means more roof area and potentially more paved area for walkways or parking. This makes it hard for the project to stay under the cap without constructing expensive permeable pavements or reducing the building footprint, which means fewer units or smaller units.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Additionally, stormwater management plans and calculations add a layer of engineering that small developers may not be familiar with. A single-family home builder might not need to hire a civil engineer for a lot, but a six-unit project might require a full drainage plan signed by an engineer, including grading, drain pipes, and connections to city storm sewers. This increases soft and hard costs. In some cases, hooking into an existing storm sewer for discharge may not be readily available, leading to requirements such as digging up the street to install a new inlet or retention system – a cost that could break a project’s budget.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For planners, a key step is to coordinate with stormwater officials early when encouraging middle-scale infill. Some possible solutions include:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>Establishing tiered requirements where small projects under a certain area of disturbance have simplified stormwater criteria or are exempt from detention, requiring basic best practices like directing downspouts to yards or gardens.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Ensuring stormwater requirements are not established or tiered based on use but instead based directly on disturbance. Projects that have stormwater impacts should be subject to the same standards regardless of whether they are single-family, multifamily, or commercial. In most cases, this likely means increasing requirements for single-family and lowering requirements for multifamily and commercial.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Creating a pre-approved toolkit of small-scale stormwater BMPs (Best Management Practices) suitable for infill.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Allowing consolidated stormwater management for multiple small projects. For example, if a city has a vacant lot or park nearby, fees from scattered small developments could fund a larger basin there that offsets their impact.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Encouraging permeable paving for driveways and walkways by counting it as pervious surface in coverage calculations, thus giving developers an incentive to use it and meet limits without reducing building size. Many codes already do this to some extent.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In summary, while stormwater regulations are crucial for flood control and water quality, they can become a significant cost center for small projects. Being mindful of scale-appropriate solutions and providing flexibility or mitigation options can ensure that a new fourplex does not need a full-blown subdivision-style stormwater system. A balance can be struck where infill housing contributes to better stormwater outcomes without imposing unrealistic infrastructure on tiny properties.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. Utility Connection Barriers: Taps, Meters, and Infrastructure\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Even if a small multifamily building clears zoning, building, fire, and stormwater hurdles, it still needs basic utilities, such as water, sewer, gas, and electric. It is here, in the realm of public works and utility providers, that another set of hidden barriers can emerge. Utility policies sometimes classify any building larger than a single-family house as “commercial,” resulting in higher fees and more stringent requirements. The cost of connecting a four-unit building to city utilities can thus be far greater than four times the cost of a single-family hookup – a shock to an infill developer’s pro forma.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6.1 Water Service and Backflow Prevention\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One of the most cited examples of a utility hurdle is the water connection for small multifamily. In many cities, when you build a duplex, you can use either a single residential water meter or two separate residential meters, one for each unit. But if you build a triplex or fourplex, the water utility may require you to treat it as a commercial account. This can mean:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Larger meter size:\u003C\u002Fstrong> A 1.5-in. or 2-in. meter may be required instead of a ¾-in. residential meter due to perceived (but often not realized) higher demand.\u003Csup>29\u003C\u002Fsup> A larger meter has a much higher tap fee (sometimes thousands of dollars more) and higher base monthly charges. For instance, a typical ¾-in. water tap fee might be $1,000, while a 2-in. commercial tap could be considerably more, not counting usage charges. In Memphis, for example, system development charges for a 2-in. meter cost the developer $5,000 per building, while in Portland, Oregon, charges exceed $38,000 for a meter of the same size. Recognizing this barrier to construction, the Portland City Council voted in July 2025 to temporarily exempt new housing from paying system development charges as a means of reaching their stated housing policy goal of 5,000 new units over the next three years.\u003Csup>30\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Separate meters for each unit or a master meter:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Some utilities require each dwelling unit to have its own meter (to bill separately), which in a fourplex means four meters. That’s four connection fees and four monthly service charges. At other times, utilities will not allow four meters on a small lot and may require a single master meter (for a commercial account) to serve the entire building. Either scenario can significantly raise costs compared to having one house with one meter.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Backflow prevention devices:\u003C\u002Fstrong> As seen in Memphis, the local utility deemed buildings with more than two units as commercial, requiring a backflow preventer on the water service. Backflow preventers are valves that stop water from flowing backward into the public supply, protecting against contamination. While a good safety measure, they are generally required for a water service to a commercial or industrial building or an irrigation system. These devices can be expensive, often require a heated enclosure if they are located outside, and may also reduce water pressure to the point of requiring a booster pump depending on the water pressure provided by the utility and the number of floors.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In effect, a fourplex may face water connection requirements more akin to those of a large apartment or commercial building than a single-family home. Planners working on missing middle initiatives might collaborate with the local water utility to review and adjust policies as needed. For example, raising the threshold for commercial classification from two units to six or eight units would allow small multifamily to be processed like residential hookups. Based on our experience in Memphis with Malone Park Commons, the threshold was increased by the local utility from two to four units due to the local building code amendment removing the sprinkler requirement for three- and four-family buildings. This means a fourplex is now allowed to use a simpler residential meter and is no longer required to have a backflow assembly.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6.2 Utility Connection Fees and Processes\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond physical hardware, the fees associated with utilities can be high. Many jurisdictions charge system development fees or impact fees per new dwelling unit for water and sewer. A single-family house might pay one fee; a fourplex could pay four times that or more in some models. If these fees are not calibrated for small projects, they can total tens of thousands of dollars, which for four units might be insurmountable. Some cities have started reducing or waiving these fees for affordable housing or Accessory Dwelling Units (ADUs) to encourage development. A similar logic could extend to missing middle – for example, charging a fourplex the same total hookup fee as a duplex, recognizing its smaller scale and beneficial infill nature.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Another consideration is electric and gas service. While it is usually simpler, there can be issues if the utility requires space for meters and other equipment. A row of four electrical meters might need an outdoor wall or space that could conflict with the design. Or, if you have a live-work unit, the utility may require separate electrical services for the commercial areas, adding complexity. Generally, these are more minor issues but still require planning. HVAC units also factor in here: more units mean more outdoor AC compressors, which may require additional electrical hookups and physical space.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F476728_50060-1024x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-849\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F476728_50060-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F476728_50060-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F476728_50060-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F476728_50060-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F476728_50060.jpg 1366w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A reduced pressure valve assembly backflow preventer (this one the LF009 by Watts), of the type that is commonly required for small multifamily projects.\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In summary, hooking up a small multifamily building can involve outsized costs for taps, meters, and lines. These are often invisible to policymakers focusing on land use and zoning. Yet they can make a viable project turn infeasible in an instant. Addressing these issues requires collaboration between planning departments, utility departments, and sometimes state regulators. When done right, reforms can ensure that adding housing units does not mean duplicating commercial-scale infrastructure on every lot. Instead, we can move toward integrated, right-sized utility solutions – for example, clustering meters in one cabinet, using a single line for multiple small units, or waiving certain devices if the risk is low – to support the gentle densification of neighborhoods.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7. Other Local Code Hurdles: Parking, Taxes, Trash, and More\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Apart from building, fire, stormwater, and utility codes, a number of other local ordinances and practices can create additional headaches for small multifamily projects. These may not always be “codes” in the strict sense; some are policies or customary requirements enforced during permitting. But all can pose barriers beyond zoning, including parking design rules, property tax classification, waste collection, and the placement of mechanical and HVAC systems.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"913\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F250730_CFB_ParkingVisual-1024x913.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-850\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F250730_CFB_ParkingVisual-1024x913.png 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F250730_CFB_ParkingVisual-300x268.png 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F250730_CFB_ParkingVisual-768x685.png 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002F250730_CFB_ParkingVisual.png 1112w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7.1 Off-Street Parking Design and Site Layout\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Parking requirements themselves are typically part of zoning – cities often require a certain number of spaces per unit (or not, as of late). Many places have reduced or eliminated parking minimums for small infill housing, recognizing the need for flexibility. However, even when fewer spaces are required, the design standards for parking lots and driveways can be problematic on small sites. For instance:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Driveway width and apron requirements:\u003C\u002Fstrong> A single-family home might get away with a narrow driveway, but a multi-family building is sometimes required by code to have a wider driveway or two-way drive aisle to access parking. On a small lot, a wide driveway can consume a lot of frontage and yard space. If regulations insist on a wider drive to reach rear parking for a fourplex, that might not fit an infill lot. Allowing narrow driveways or alley access is critical. For example, a ten-foot driveway can adequately serve four to six parking spaces.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Accessible parking:\u003C\u002Fstrong> If a project requires a specific number of spaces, it may need to include an accessible parking spot with extra width and an access aisle to comply with accessibility regulations. The model International Building Code, copying from Americans with Disabilities Act standards, requires one accessible parking space if a total of up to 25 spaces are provided.\u003Csup>31\u003C\u002Fsup> So, even a fourplex with four parking spaces is required to make one of them compliant with accessibility standards, which requires ample space and proper grading. That space, plus the aisle, could take the place of two normal spaces. \u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Parking lot landscaping and setbacks:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Commercial development often requires landscaped islands, perimeter buffers, lighting, and drainage infrastructure in parking areas. If a small multifamily project is treated under the same standards, a five-space parking lot might be required to have a tree island or a buffer planting strip, etc. This is more typical if the project is reviewed as an apartment complex. Some codes exempt small residential parking areas from those requirements, treating them like residential driveways.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Loading or turn-around:\u003C\u002Fstrong> If local fire or traffic codes require a turnaround for any parking area designed for more than a few cars, a middle-scale housing development might have to pave a hammerhead or circle, which may be wasted space for such a small project.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A more practical solution is to keep parking as informal as possible, using street parking or allowing parking pads off an alley, for example. Many communities today are reducing or eliminating off-street parking minimums for these small projects entirely to avoid these site plan complexities. That may not be feasible in every jurisdiction, so planners should consider how to tailor parking design standards for small multifamily infill developments. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7.2 Property Tax Classification and Assessments\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">An often overlooked “code” issue – more of a statutory one – is how properties are taxed. In some states, property tax assessment ratios differ between residential and commercial properties. Tennessee is one such state – residential property is assessed at 25% of its appraised value, but commercial property at 40%. Crucially, Tennessee considers any residential building with more than one rental unit as commercial for tax purposes. That means a duplex or fourplex held by a landlord would be taxed at the higher commercial rate, increasing the operating costs. Essentially, a fourplex owner in Memphis could pay 60% higher property taxes than if those same four units were each on separate lots as single-family homes, since four separate houses would each count as residential at 25%. For a small developer trying to offer attainable market-rate rentals, this tax treatment can really pinch finances, forcing higher rents than otherwise needed. In general, this may require state-level advocacy to change definitions or ratios.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Planners can team up with housing policy advocates to push for reforms, such as reclassifying two- to four-unit residential properties as residential for tax purposes. This would align taxes with the reality that a fourplex is housing, not a commercial enterprise on par with a commercial building. If statutory changes are difficult, cities may consider property tax abatement programs or incentives for small multifamily properties. For example, a city could provide a partial tax abatement for ten years on any new fourplex to offset the higher assessment ratio. The key is to identify if your locale has this kind of baked-in disadvantage and then quantify its impact – it might be significant enough to discourage anyone from building small rental housing at all.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7.3 Waste Collection and Service Rules\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Trash and recycling might seem mundane, but they can create logistical, space, and cost issues. Many cities have thresholds for municipal garbage collection. For instance, the city will only pick up trash from buildings with up to four units, provided they have individual carts. Anything larger must contract a private dumpster service. Some cities cap it at two units, while others cap it at six or even eight. If a small apartment falls outside the cutoff, the owner has to pay a commercial trash hauler on a regular basis. That may not sound huge, but commercial trash service often means needing a dumpster or large bins and paying monthly fees – a different model than just having a couple of rollout carts for each home.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The presence of a dumpster introduces a design consideration: where to locate it? Many zoning codes require dumpsters to be enclosed by a fence and located to the rear or side, with a concrete pad. Enclosures may also require landscaping or some other type of screening. Dumpsters must also be placed in an accessible location for the hauler. On a small property, squeezing a dumpster enclosure could be very challenging. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If there are only four or six units, perhaps the waste generation is not much more than that of a couple of houses, and using rolling carts could be sufficient. Planners may need to coordinate with sanitation departments to extend residential service to middle-scale housing.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Additionally, recycling and compost requirements may apply – some jurisdictions mandate that apartment buildings have recycling service, which could mean extra bins or dumpsters. Compliance for a small multifamily building can be tricky if space is limited. There might also be rules about how far the bins or dumpster can be from the curb for pickup, which influences site layout.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">From a policy standpoint, ensuring that small infill projects are not forced into expensive commercial trash contracts is part of keeping operating costs down. The Public Works department could decide that anything under eight to ten units can opt into city solid waste service rather than defaulting to a private hauling service.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7.4 HVAC and Mechanical Equipment Placement\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While not a “code” issue per se, accommodating mechanical systems in a small multifamily can be a design hurdle. Multiple HVAC units have to go somewhere – often on the ground outside or on the roof. Zoning or local ordinances sometimes have rules requiring mechanical equipment to be screened from view or kept out of setbacks. A single house might have one or two air conditioning condensers, but a fourplex could have four, one for each unit, unless a central system is used. Four condensers lined up could encroach into a side yard or rear yard, so the developer may need a variance or to build a screening fence. A simpler solution would be to allow mechanical equipment to encroach into a required side or rear setback. If the solution is to put them on the roof, then structural accommodations are needed, and possibly noise considerations if near windows.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Similarly, the number of utility meters, transformer boxes, gas regulators, and other equipment all increase as unit count grows, and require placement. Especially for small multifamily buildings on infill lots, this may create conflicts with neighboring property lines. Similarly, multiple vent terminations for bathroom or kitchen exhausts may create code issues for small multifamily buildings on smaller lots. A tightly spaced infill project needs to be clever in routing all these vents to either the roof or a wall with sufficient setback. This may add cost in terms of more ductwork or soffits. While these issues are not the typical policy work that planners come to expect, these considerations can be important details to ensure that small multifamily projects can locate necessary mechanical equipment, sometimes with minor encroachments. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7.5 Other Odds and Ends\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Every locality will have its own quirks. Some other possible hurdles:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Subdivision or land division rules:\u003C\u002Fstrong> If the intent is to sell units, such as townhomes or condos, then either subdivision or condo mapping is required, which can be complex. This goes beyond building codes, but it is a consideration for planners in enabling small-scale homeownership of multifamily units. Planners should be familiar with laws governing condominiums, horizontal property regimes, and parent and child lots in their states and local jurisdictions. These structures could be valuable tools to unlock opportunities to support middle-scale housing development and new pathways to homeownership.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Impact fees or school fees per unit:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Some areas charge a flat fee per unit to fund schools, parks, and other public services. Five $10,000 fees on a five-unit building is $50,000, whereas a large single-family home might pay one $10k fee – an imbalance that may be worth reviewing if your jurisdiction imposes impact fees. Consider capping fees for small multifamily or scaling them by square footage instead of per unit.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Construction permitting process:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Small multifamily buildings permitted as commercial construction rather than residential may encounter a more rigorous permitting process than a single-family home. More code complexity often leads to more review steps and cycles, especially if plan reviewers are not as familiar with small multifamily projects. Consider offering a pre-approval process to allow small developers to have their stock building plans reviewed before they have a property under contract or financing to close, allowing for a streamlined review once the project is ready to be built.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For planners, the lesson is to take a holistic view of the regulations that affect development. When undertaking an initiative to allow more missing middle housing in your jurisdiction, planners should review building codes, public works standards, fire codes, and even tax codes that could hinder the effort. A coordinated reform package – or at least parallel efforts – can then tackle these alongside zoning changes. In the final section, we will discuss specific action steps that planners and allied officials can take to overcome these hidden barriers and facilitate more middle-scale housing development in their communities.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8. Action Steps for Planners: Clearing the Path for Small Multifamily\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Creating pathways for small multifamily housing requires more than just zoning changes. Planners can play a key role in convening different departments, drafting updates to local codes, and advocating for state-level adjustments. Here are some concrete action steps for planners and policy-makers to consider:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Address Middle-Scale Housing Barriers in the Comprehensive Plan:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Many comprehensive plans now specifically address missing middle housing and goals to enable more of it. Land use elements of the plan may address areas where missing middle housing is encouraged, and policies may be recommended to facilitate zoning changes that enable missing middle housing. \u003Cem>Don’t stop at zoning.\u003C\u002Fem> Use the comprehensive plan as an opportunity to investigate all barriers preventing your community from getting more middle-scale housing built, so the comprehensive plan’s goals for missing middle housing can be implemented.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Find your Malone Park Commons:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Some of the best resources for planners to understand middle-scale housing and barriers to delivery are the people working in your community every day to make middle-scale housing work. Middle-scale housing developers can help planners understand costs, pro formas, processes, and challenges encountered across local codes, regulations, and rules.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Form an Interdepartmental Task Force:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Bring together building officials, fire code officials, public works engineers, utility representatives, and other related staff to review how current codes treat small multifamily projects. Identify inconsistencies or excessive requirements. Use real examples (or pro formas) to illustrate how small multifamily projects are handled under each department’s codes, regulations, and rules. If need be, include outside expertise like builders, architects, or engineers to help bring real-world impact into focus. Make the goal clear without asking others to compromise their values. This collaborative review can build understanding and support for right-sizing regulations. \u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Develop a Small Multifamily Building Code Amendment:\u003C\u002Fstrong> If your state allows local building code amendments, consider adopting an alternative compliance path specifically for small multifamily buildings (e.g., for a fairly low-density city, this might be those with three to twelve units and under three stories; for a higher-density city, this might be single-lot multifamily up to six stories). Key features might include: allowing 2-hour fire separations in lieu of sprinklers for certain unit counts, permitting NFPA 13D or 13R sprinkler systems if used, single-stair design options, narrower corridor allowances, and use of IRC structural prescriptions. By codifying these, cities can give developers predictability and potentially avoid needing state legislation if it falls within their local authority.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Advocate for State Code Changes if Needed:\u003C\u002Fstrong> In some cases, state law may restrict local flexibility. Planners can compile data and case studies to lobby for state code amendments or bills, or even write the bills themselves. North Carolina’s success with HB 488, bringing three- and four-unit dwellings under the residential code, and Tennessee’s HB 2787, allowing sprinkler flexibility for three to four units, can be cited as precedents. Emphasize that these changes can boost housing supply without compromising safety.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Get Involved with Influencing National Model Codes: \u003C\u002Fstrong>Planners can play a role in shaping the building codes, an area where the profession is underrepresented today. National model codes, such as the International Building Code (IBC) and International Residential Code (IRC), are updated through open processes led by the International Code Council (ICC) and other standard-setting bodies. Participating in public comment periods, supporting code change proposals, and collaborating with local building officials to submit recommendations are all ways planners can ensure that middle-scale housing and community development goals are reflected in the next generation of codes. Even planners who cannot formally vote can lend expertise and advocacy that helps balance life safety with broader policy objectives. \u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Calibrate Development Fees and Taxes:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Review impact fees, utility connection fees, and tax assessments for any inequities affecting small multifamily properties. For example, consider fee reductions for the first few units in a project. If you cannot work with your finance department or state legislature to classify small multifamily buildings as residential property for tax purposes, consider a rebate or abatement program instead that could encourage developers to build middle-scale housing.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Update Local Fire Codes and Policies:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Coordinate with the fire department to adjust requirements, such as alarm systems and fire access, for small projects. For instance, raise the threshold for requiring a full fire alarm panel – maybe only mandate it if a building has more than eight units or more than two stories. Develop guidelines for single-stair buildings up to a certain height to provide more flexibility with egress requirements.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Work with Utilities on “Small Infill” Standards:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Engage water and sewer utilities to create a separate category for small multifamily developments. This might involve:\n\u003Cul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n\u003Cli>Allowing the use of standard residential service lines and meters for up to four units without requiring costly upgrades.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Eliminating the automatic requirement for backflow preventer assemblies on small residential or multifamily properties, or providing them at utility expense if truly needed, since they protect the public system.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Structuring billing so that these buildings can have either individual unit meters or master meters with equitable charges, rather than defaulting to the most expensive option.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>Involving utility representatives to review and approve differentiated costs or connection policies so that small multifamily buildings pay a reasonable, proportional fee and can connect using the same requirements as single-family homes.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Revise Solid Waste and Service Rules:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Coordinate with the municipal waste management to extend residential trash collection services to small multifamily properties. For example, if currently two units are the max for city pickup, consider raising it to eight or ten units, or allow two sets of bins to cover the added units. This prevents forcing a small property to maintain a dumpster. Planners can also help update ordinances to allow the use of rolling carts in multi-unit dwellings up to a certain size, and waive strict enclosure requirements when using carts. \u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Flexible Parking and Site Design Criteria:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Through zoning text amendments or administrative policy, exempt small multifamily from certain commercial site design mandates. Allow them to follow the same driveway standards as single-family homes. If parking minimums exist, consider reducing or eliminating minimums for small multifamily up to a certain size, especially near transit. If you cannot eliminate a parking requirement, at least allow creative solutions such as tandem spaces or counting on-street parking towards the requirement. Additionally, ensure that no landscaping or open-space requirements apply.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Provide Prototypical Plans or Pattern Books:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Many small developers might be deterred by having to design a building from scratch to meet all these nuanced codes. Planning departments can help by commissioning a set of pre-approved designs or guidelines for common missing middle types that are already vetted for code compliance. For developers with licensed stock plans, offer a low-cost pre-approval service to review plans before a project is on the line. Pre-approved plans can expedite permitting and reduce design costs, making small projects easier to permit.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Educate and Streamline Permitting Staff:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Ensure that plan reviewers and inspectors are aware of any new small multifamily provisions so they can apply them consistently. Sometimes, code amendments exist on paper, but individual plan reviewers or inspectors default to old habits. Conduct training sessions or create a checklist to review a middle-scale housing development, highlighting areas where requirements differ. Also, consider assigning a single point of contact in the permitting office for small housing developers – essentially a project concierge who helps navigate all the departments. This person can help catch issues early and coordinate between, say, building and public works, so that contradictory instructions are minimized.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\n\n\n\u003Cli>\u003Cstrong>Pilot Projects and Demonstrations:\u003C\u002Fstrong> Work with a local non-profit developer or housing authority to build a small, multifamily pilot project under the new relaxed codes, to showcase its viability. This can serve as a real-world test and provide data on things like how much cost savings were achieved. Documenting these outcomes will help quantify the value of the changes and communicate the results better. It also builds developer confidence – seeing a successful six-unit infill might encourage others to attempt similar projects, knowing that it can be done without extraordinary hurdles.\u003C\u002Fli>\n\u003C\u002Ful>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Implementing these steps will require effort and likely some trial and error. But the payoff is potentially significant: a regulatory environment in which a middle-scale housing development is almost as straightforward to develop as a single-family home. When that is achieved, more local builders are more likely to take on these infill opportunities, gradually adding attainable housing choices in existing neighborhoods. Planners are in a unique position within local government to not only promote missing middle housing development through zoning reform, but also match with complementary code reforms, completing the package necessary to deliver missing middle housing in practice.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">9. Conclusion: Tying it All Together – Removing Barriers, Realizing Opportunities\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Small-scale multifamily housing offers a promising avenue to increase housing supply, affordability, and neighborhood diversity without drastic physical change. Yet, as this article has detailed, a web of “hidden” code barriers beyond zoning that favor single-family construction has long stymied these housing types. From rigid building codes that treat a quadplex more like a larger apartment building to infrastructure rules that demand commercial-grade utilities for cottage courts, these requirements have made it technically or financially impractical to build the very housing that so many plans and policies now encourage.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The good news is that recognition of this problem is spreading, and so are solutions. We see pioneering cities and states adjusting codes, moving more housing types into the residential code, relaxing costly requirements for small multifamily buildings, offering single-stair egress flexibility and pre-approved plans, and more. These examples demonstrate that safety and livability can be maintained while significantly easing burdens on small infill projects. When planners, code officials, and legislators work together, they can strike a balance that keeps residents safe and infrastructure adequate without pricing middle-scale house development out. However, it’s important to understand that code adjustments have cost implications, and not every change lowers costs overall.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"683\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FRC-22-1.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-851\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FRC-22-1.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FRC-22-1-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F09\u002FRC-22-1-768x512.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Ribbon cutting at Malone Park Commons, with developer Andre Jones (left).\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As we implement the action steps outlined – from code amendments to interdepartmental coordination – it’s important to monitor outcomes. Are more small multifamily projects being submitted and completed? Track the numbers and solicit feedback from developers. If the pace is not picking up, poll your developer community to understand what barriers are still present in your market. Maybe financing and funding issues, such as appraisals or lending, are the next frontier – planners can then work with banks, community development financial institutions (CDFIs), or appraisers to educate and adapt, ensuring lenders understand the new products. In other words, removing code barriers is necessary but not always sufficient; we may also need to nurture the ecosystem of small-scale development with technical assistance and financial tools. Nevertheless, code reform is a foundational step that makes everything else possible.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Finally, it’s worth emphasizing the national focus, along with the local nuance, required in this effort. While broad principles apply everywhere, such as keeping codes proportional, the specific fixes may differ from city to suburb or from state to state. Some states allow local building and fire code amendments, some do not. Planners should leverage existing networks to share what is working in their communities. There is now a growing body of knowledge on these hidden barriers and how to overcome them, so no one needs to start from scratch. Finally, many of the building and fire codes used nationwide are model codes from either the International Code Council (ICC) or the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Planners should seek out membership and participation in these organizations to bring these insights to the organizations that create the codes, helping to influence how future versions of model codes treat small multifamily.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">By looking beyond zoning and taking on these granular code challenges, communities can unlock a huge untapped potential for gentle density. The result will not just be more housing units, but more vibrant, mixed, and resilient neighborhoods. Housing types like triplexes, courtyard apartments, and live-work fourplexes help contribute to walkability, support local businesses, and expand housing for different income levels and family types – all goals of great planning. In the end, the measure of success will be seeing infill lots that sat vacant or underused now hosting families and individuals in well-designed, small-scale multifamily homes. When planners drive reform of the “hidden codes” as passionately as they do zoning, we truly pave the way for a more inclusive and abundant housing future. The path beyond zoning is clear: align all codes and regulations that affect neighborhood development with a vision of more abundant housing, and watch those visions become a reality on the ground.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"_acf_changed":17},[13909,6974,13878,26,2540,27],"post-832",{"category":7304,"summary":7305,"authors":7306,"additional_information":7307,"table_of_contents":7308,"summary_group":13911,"full_report_group":13912,"related_footnotes":13913},{"sg_file":16,"sg_url":16,"sg_label":16},{"frg_file":7227,"frg_url":16,"frg_label":16},[3810],{"self":13915,"collection":13919,"about":13921,"acf:post":13923,"wp:featuredmedia":13925,"wp:attachment":13927,"curies":13929},[13916],{"href":7280,"targetHints":13917},{"allow":13918},[35],[13920],{"href":7013},[13922],{"href":7016},[13924],{"embeddable":44,"href":3830},[13926],{"embeddable":44,"href":7325},[13928],{"href":7328},[13930],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},{"id":9240,"date":9275,"date_gmt":9275,"guid":13932,"modified":13934,"modified_gmt":13934,"slug":1101,"status":10,"type":6974,"link":9276,"title":13935,"content":13936,"featured_media":9202,"template":16,"meta":13938,"class_list":13939,"acf":13941,"_links":13945},{"rendered":13933},"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002F?post_type=cfb-publication&p=820","2026-02-13T10:48:21",{"rendered":242},{"rendered":13937,"protected":17},"\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">0 Preface\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In late 2020, tired of my old Brooklyn apartment – historic and charming, but loud and full of maintenance hassles – I put my co-op unit on the market and set out to buy a new condo. Common charges for apartments in New York City can be as high as rent in other cities, so I knew that I wanted to buy a walk-up. Soon after, I found an efficient little one-bedroom, one-bath in a new five-story walk-up building on a 2,000-sq. ft. lot. Technically an older building from the early 20th century with two new added floors, the plans were filed under an older New York City building code, and so the developer got away with not installing an elevator. The price was double the median sales price for a new house in the United States, but the common charges were only $226 per month – not particularly low by, say, Swiss or French standards, but very affordable for New York City. I was an in-shape 32-year-old, and had only ever lived in walk-ups in New York. An elevator just seemed like an unnecessary cost.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Almost as soon as I moved in, I would come to regret the decision. In 2017, after a routine viral infection, I had never felt quite right. Doctors dismissed my complaints of fatigue, constant thirst, and a strange tingling in my arms, and eventually I gave up looking for answers and dismissed them too. But in the spring of 2021, shortly after moving in, my health took a sharp turn for the worse. Riding a bike across the Williamsburg Bridge one morning to work, my vision almost went dark. I began to feel dizzy every time I stood up or ate. A few times, I fainted. A doctor would soon diagnose me with postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome, a disease that often starts with a viral infection, on top of the myalgic encephalomyelitis (commonly, and sometimes derisively, called chronic fatigue syndrome) that, in retrospect, no doctor had been willing to diagnose years prior.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">My walk-up apartment quickly began to feel like a trap. Despite still being in good shape, I would get dizzy and winded walking up the two flights of stairs to my unit. My doctors advised me to limit exertion and stop exercising. I began to order delivery from a restaurant that was just across the street. Walking wasn’t so bad, but the stairs were a barrier to leaving my home.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">That next Christmas, I traveled to Romania to see my mother. While I was in Europe, a Minneapolis developer’s tweet about a new 12-unit apartment building he’d developed went viral. It read, “12 units. Single-family lot. No elevator. No parking. Minneapolis.” His intent was to show how it’s still possible to build an affordable building in an American city by paring it down to the basics.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Urbanists and his fellow developers on Twitter were complimentary (the rents were remarkably low for new, unsubsidized construction), but eventually the tweet escaped those circles and the reactions were vicious. “Do you think disabled people don’t live in Minnesota?” “Wait. How is it legal to build new housing without an elevator?” “God forbid an able-bodied tenant gets into an accident or becomes disabled.” “Real estate developers will not see heaven.” “Fuck off if you have kids. Fuck off if you’re disabled. Fuck off if you become disabled.”\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As a newly disabled person, I got it. But as somebody who knew something about real estate development, I thought, have these people never seen a three-story apartment building in their own country? None of them have elevators. It’s not affordable to spend $100,000 or more (plus recurring expenses) on an elevator that only serves eight apartments.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">But then I thought about the continent where I was lying, in bed, reeling from the aftereffects of trying to walk for a few miles with an energy-limiting illness. Almost all new apartment buildings in Western Europe have elevators. My mother’s building in Bucharest, a city dramatically poorer than Minneapolis, has 15 apartments and an elevator. My friend in Rome, who lives in a building shorter than mine, has not one but two elevators (the design is such that the developer could have gotten away with only one, but since the building had 12 apartments, they decided to split it into two slightly separated wings for aesthetic purposes). I asked an Italian architect I knew how much an elevator there would cost to install in a mid-rise apartment building. Not more than the low tens of thousands of euros, he said – a tiny fraction of the cost of an elevator in America.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Americans pride ourselves on our accessibility laws. Traveling in Amsterdam, Paris, or London on vacation, all you see as a tourist are inaccessible, old walk-up buildings. The people are thinner, but you rarely see people in wheelchairs rolling down the sidewalk. In American architecture and building code circles, you often hear some variation on, “they don’t have the ADA in Europe.” (Very true – the ‘A’ stands for Americans.) And while it is true that in the United States you are more likely to see certain accessibility features than in Europe, the truth about disability and access is more complicated.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">With an intensive regimen of off-label medications and a lot of luck, my health has improved. The stairs in my building are now manageable, though deterioration remains a constant threat. When my friend in Rome with two elevators in her 12-unit, four-story building came to see me in New York a few months later, she panted as she lugged her suitcase up the final step. I apologized for not being able to help her, given my limited energy. She said that’s alright, but asked, “You Americans love these buildings without elevators, why is that?” This report seeks to answer that question, and propose how North America can join the rest of the developed world and learn to love the elevator again. Because while many of us may be stair users for the moment, we’re all born disabled and, with any luck, we will die disabled as well.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1 Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The United States of America is a sprawling, car-centric country, but one form of mass transit stands out above the rest in sheer ridership: the elevator. The earliest elevators date back to antiquity, but it was in the mid-1800s that technological advances and urban trends came together to create the elevator and elevator industry that we know today. Its center was in New York City, where the elevator made the leap from hotels and stores to the office building in 1869, with the construction of the Equitable Building. The elevator allowed Lower Manhattan to pierce through the de facto five-story height limit imposed by humans’ willingness to climb stairs and, along with steel frame construction, led to the invention of the skyscraper, changing the skylines of American cities before conquering the rest of the planet.\u003Csup>1\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Americans make over 20 billion trips per year by elevator – twice the number of trips made by what people think of as mass transit. Despite the association between elevators and high-rises, the average elevator in the United States only has four landings, with elevators being as much a tool for convenience and accessibility as for able-bodied necessity.\u003Csup>2\u003C\u002Fsup> The elevator – along with its lesser-used diagonal cousin, the escalator – makes up an entire axis of mechanized travel.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When elevators were first popularized in the 19th and early 20th centuries, they were found mostly in taller buildings. A mid-rise property of public significance like a hotel or office building might have one, but otherwise, they were too expensive for an apartment building of just a few stories, particularly back when they required a full-time human operator. But since World War II, the trend in Western Europe (and, later, East Asia) has been to install elevators not only in buildings that absolutely need them given their height, but in any new apartment building at all – and many older ones too. They’ve become as routine in high-income countries in Western Europe and East Asia as a washing machine or parking space, and moving into a building with an elevator has become a normal part of the aging process.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">But despite being the birthplace of the modern passenger elevator, the United States has fallen far behind its peers. Elevators in the United States have remained a fairly niche item in residential settings – expected in a high-rise or a big new mid-rise apartment building, but otherwise largely absent from the middle-class home. Part of this absence is due to the dominance of freestanding single-family houses in North America, but even apartments in the United States are less likely to have elevators than those in much of Europe and Asia. The United States relies heavily on walk-up typologies like townhouses and garden apartment complexes for infill and multifamily development. In absolute terms, the United States has fewer elevators than Spain – a country with one-seventh the population, and fewer than half the number of apartments. With rapidly aging populations, countries from China to Croatia have embarked on ambitious programs to add elevators to their existing stock of occupied walk-up apartment buildings – a virtually unknown concept in the United States.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">And behind its lack of elevators, North America faces a crippling cost problem. The price to install an elevator in a new mid-rise building in the United States or Canada is now at least three times the cost in Western Europe or East Asia. Ongoing expenses like service contracts, periodic inspections, repairs, and modernizations are just as overpriced. High-income countries with strong labor movements and high safety standards from South Korea to Switzerland have found ways to install wheelchair-accessible elevators in mid-rise apartment buildings for around $50,000 each, even after adjusting for America’s typically higher general price levels. In the United States and Canada, on the other hand, these installations start at around $150,000 in even low-cost areas.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The cost problem tends to lead not to larger portions of individual project budgets allocated to elevators, but to fewer elevators overall. Small apartment buildings which would have elevators in Western Europe are built as walk-up buildings in the United States. Other projects throughout North America are built not as apartments at all, but as townhouses. Larger sites aren’t broken up into smaller segments, each with their own elevator serving a dozen or so apartments, as in Europe, but rather are combined into large, double-loaded corridor buildings, with one elevator for every 50 to 100 units (or more).\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This report takes the cost discrepancy as its major research question: why is there such a vast gap in prices, what are the effects, and how might prices for elevators in the United States and Canada be brought down to earth? The experiences of other high-income countries show us the bounds of what is realistic, and offer suggestions for policies to implement in North America that have proven track records abroad.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Three major differences between North America and the rest of the world emerged in our research, which drive up the cost of elevators in North America: the size of elevator cabins, the availability of skilled elevator labor, and the technical codes and standards governing the construction of elevators and the availability of parts.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator cars in the United States and Canada are much larger than those in Europe in particular, with the typical new elevator being about twice the size. This difference in size is driven by regulations to accommodate people in wheelchairs and people experiencing medical emergencies who are taken out of buildings on stretchers, although these same groups are also the ones who suffer the most when elevators go unbuilt due to the expense.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator labor is also much harder to come by in the United States and Canada. Immigration laws in North America are unfriendly to non-college-graduate workers. Domestic educational systems are oriented towards training white-collar workers, with weak technical and vocational instruction of the type that is more useful to the elevator industry. The union representing most North American elevator workers takes advantage of and exacerbates this skills shortage to bargain for inefficiencies in new installations and other elevator work, leading manufacturers to forgo some of the preassembly and prefabrication and other efficiencies common in the rest of the world.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">And finally, the United States and Canada have walled themselves off from the global market for parts through a unique web of technical codes and standards for elevators, while virtually the entire rest of the world has pursued harmonization with the dominant European standards.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This report focuses on the policy details of the elevator industry, but broader differences in attitudes and expectations between North America and the rest of the developed world drive these industry-specific policies. Different mindsets around and approaches to accessibility, emergency medical services, fire protection, electrical equipment, architecture, and the logistics of the regulatory state deeply affect the elevator industry in ways that are beyond the industry’s control. It’s a philosophy that works better than anywhere in the world at fulfilling the desires of a diverse set of stakeholders in situations where resources are abundant, but which pays for it by withholding access where resources are more limited.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The North American approach is one of extremes. American and Canadian elevators have the largest cabins, the strongest doors, the most redundant communication systems, the best paid workers, and he most diversity of codes on the one hand. And in exchange, Americans and Canadians have the highest prices, the most limited access, the most uncompetitive market for parts, and the most restricted labor markets.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevators are one of the most unique systems in a building, and the most inscrutable to those outside of the industry. They account for only around 2 percent of the total cost of construction, where installed. But the challenges of the industry and its regulatory environment are not unique to vertical transportation. Applying these ideas to other building systems and construction sub-sectors will be left as an exercise to the reader, but we hope the themes covered in this report can offer a lens into North America’s construction challenges more broadly – the difficulty of building multifamily housing, the limited materials market, the ever-tightening labor market, and the challenges of providing accessibility in an aging and more inclusive world.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1.1 Notes on methodology\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This report focuses on comparing the elevator industry in the United States and Canada, referred to as “North America” (which, in this report, does not include Mexico or Central America), to the elevator industry in Spain, France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland in particular, while also drawing on experiences in other countries in Europe, East Asia, and Oceania. The main Western European comparator countries were chosen for their large installed elevator stocks, high incomes, high safety and labor standards, and the language abilities of the author. This report focuses on elevators in apartment buildings (both rentals and condos), since these buildings are home to most elevators, and are where the decision to install an elevator is most variable according to cost.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Most elevator industry revenue and even more of its profit come from expenses incurred after a building is first built, but this report focuses on new installations. This is because new installations are more homogenous and easier to compare across different settings. The issues that contribute to high costs for new elevators – around labor, availability of components, and car sizes – apply in similar ways to repairs, maintenance, inspections, and modernizations, so the new installation issues that this report prioritizes are relevant throughout the elevator’s lifecycle.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Because this report is the first public attempt to study the North American elevator industry through the lens of international comparison, there are many opportunities for future research, which are summarized at the end.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Both metric and United States customary units are used in this report, with conversions given where appropriate. Currencies are typically left as-is, except in pricing tables, where an adjusted total is listed which converts nominal prices into U.S. dollars using the OECD’s purchasing power parity conversion factor (to account for cost-of-living differences), and then inflates them into December 2023 dollars to account for the high rate of inflation that the western world has experienced over the last few years. \u003Csup>3\u003C\u002Fsup> Different tax policies can complicate price comparisons, but for new installation price comparisons, value-added taxes in Europe are noted separately as nominal costs and included in adjusted prices. For installations in the United States, sales taxes are not generally applied to final prices for elevators as they are classified as exempt capital improvements, though sales taxes may have been already paid on intermediate components and are therefore already factored into prices.Markups applied by contractors are left out of all prices \u003Csup>4\u003C\u002Fsup>. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">All sources of data have imprecision, some more so than others – rough estimates of costs for certain components, national elevator stocks estimated to sometimes only a single significant digit by trade organizations or with uncertain inclusion of escalators, cabin sizes that vary according to manufacturer and model. Elevator sales are usually a private affair, and precise data on cost in particular is a trade secret that is difficult to track down. That said, the gaps in prices between North America and the rest of the world are so large that small imprecisions and adjustments do not meaningfully change the conclusions. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Assertions in this report based on publicly available information are cited. Other information is sourced from around 100 off-the-record interviews or informal conversations with elevator industry professionals, wheelchair users, architects, developers, and others, and is not cited to avoid crowding the text with unhelpful anonymous citations. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1.2 Acknowledgements\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While this report was authored solely by Stephen Smith, executive director of the Center for Building in North America. Four researchers in particularly contributed to my understanding of the elevator industry abroad – Kuba Snopek and Petro Vladimirov in Poland with the firm Direction, who conducted interviews with individuals in both Poland and much of Western Europe, as well as Geli Tadonki in France and Moon Hoon in South Korea, who contributed information from their respective countries. They are not responsible for any errors or omissions regarding those countries, and did not participate in the writing of the report. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">I would like to thank Allison Allgaier, Justina Bacinska, Richard Blaska, Joe Caracappa, José Carlos Frechilla, James Colgate, Bob Danek, Bryn Davidson, Daniel Dunham, Ray Eleid, Jeffrey Evans, Will Evans, Sergio Gianoli, Laurens Gilen, Markus Hansen, Kevin Heling, Mike Jackson, Robert Kasperma, Chip Kouba, Iain MacKenzie, Tabitha Nichols, Kimberly Paarlberg, Evan Petrower, Tadeusz Popielas, Lee Rigby, Michael Schneider, Rory Smith, Jon Soberman, Blair Suzuki, Stephen Thomas, Steven Winkel, and Raïd Zaraket for some of the interviews granted and information provided. None of the above individuals or their respective organizations viewed a copy of this report before publishing, they bear no responsibility for errors or omissions, and they may even disagree with this report’s findings and recommendations. Nevertheless, I would like to thank them for their time, as it would not have been possible to write this without them. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2 Access\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The United States and Canada have fewer elevators per capita than any other high-income country for data could be found. This shortage of elevators in North America drives what types of buildings are constructed at all, and what types of buildings, when built, are equipped with elevators. While accessibility rules mandate elevators in certain situations, the reality is that regulations respond to market conditions as much as they shape them. And in the United States, regulations mandating elevator access for multifamily buildings can be much looser than in other high-income countries (which, despite generally being classified as “high-income”, are almost always less wealthy than the United States). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At last count, the United States had over 1.03 million elevators.\u003Csup>5\u003C\u002Fsup> America is tied with Italy and Spain for second place in total installed units, behind China’s fleet of over 8 million elevators.\u003Csup>6\u003C\u002Fsup> While 1.03 million installed units is in absolute terms among the highest in the world, America has fallen far behind when the number of elevators is adjusted for population. The U.S. has very few elevators on a per-capita basis for a highly developed nation, even accounting for its suburban character (the number of elevators in Canada is not known, but one rough estimate suggests it is similar to the United States on a per capita basis, and recent provincial figures back that up).\u003Csup>7\u003C\u002Fsup> A major reason for the relatively few elevators in the U.S. and Canada is the cost of installation: American and Canadian developers pay roughly three times as much to install an elevator as developers in high-income peer countries in Europe and Asia. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">High elevator costs conspire with other forces to push North American developers to build townhouses rather than the small condominium buildings more common abroad. Where small apartment buildings are built in North America, they are more likely to be walk-ups than similar buildings in Western Europe. North American apartment buildings have more units per elevator core than their similarly tall counterparts in Western Europe, in part to spread the high cost of elevators across more apartments. And unlike in Europe and Asia, elevators are almost never added to existing walk-up buildings in North America, depriving aging populations of improvements in access in apartments that have already been built. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.1 Stock\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Exact data on the number of elevator installations is hard to come by, but according to the data we were able to assemble, there is no high-income country on earth with fewer elevators per capita than the United States. The United States’s total elevator stock, in absolute terms, roughly matches those of Spain or Italy, individually, despite having seven and five times the population, respectively. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_national-stock_V2-CMYK-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-770\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_national-stock_V2-CMYK-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_national-stock_V2-CMYK-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_national-stock_V2-CMYK-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_national-stock_V2-CMYK-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_national-stock_V2-CMYK-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_national-stock_V2-CMYK-scaled.jpg 1810w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Some figures may include devices other than elevators, such as escalators and construction hoists, but the vast majority of devices in any country are elevators. Population figures correspond as closely as possible to the year of the elevator data.\u003Cbr>\u003Cbr>1 This estimate is conservative, and there may be up to 600,000 elevators in the country.\u003Cbr>2 No nationwide figure was available for Canada, so data from Ontario, British Columbia, and Saskatchewan was extrapolated to arrive at a nationwide estimate.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">America’s vast geographic expanse and love of single-family houses explain some of the country’s lack of elevators, but not all of it. Single-family houses aside, the United States has over 32 million apartments, while Spain has fewer than 13 million apartments but about the same number of elevators.\u003Csup>8\u003C\u002Fsup> The U.S. has 40 percent fewer elevators per capita than the Netherlands, despite 30 percent of the American housing stock being in multifamily dwellings (and 19 percent in buildings with at least 10 units), compared to a total multifamily housing share of just 21 percent in the Netherlands.\u003Csup>9\u003C\u002Fsup> New York City has roughly the same population as Switzerland and even more New Yorkers live in apartment buildings than Swiss residents do, but New York only has half the number of passenger elevators.\u003Csup>10\u003C\u002Fsup> No matter how you slice the numbers, America has fallen behind on elevators. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.1.1 Walk-ups and elevator buildings \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">With far higher costs and fewer elevators per capita, elevators are provided in new apartment buildings in Western Europe at building heights and unit counts which are deemed too low to justify the cost in the United States. Federal accessibility law and locally adopted building codes in the U.S. are far more permissive of walk-up apartment buildings than regulations in Western Europe, likely as a consequence of high elevator costs. Developers in the U.S. build new walk-up rental apartments and condos to sizes, heights, and rents that shock Western Europeans, and developers in the U.S. seek out loopholes and vagueness in codes to avoid building elevators in circumstances where not only building regulators, but also the market, would demand accessibility in Europe. In high-cost coastal American cities, elevator access for new luxury apartments can fall behind access found in middle-class housing in Southern Europe built more than half a century ago. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"683\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F54-viviendas-de-proteccion-publica-en-inca-illes-balears-joan-josep-fortuny-giro-plus-alventosa-morell-arquitectes_8-1-1024x683.jpeg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-771\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F54-viviendas-de-proteccion-publica-en-inca-illes-balears-joan-josep-fortuny-giro-plus-alventosa-morell-arquitectes_8-1-1024x683.jpeg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F54-viviendas-de-proteccion-publica-en-inca-illes-balears-joan-josep-fortuny-giro-plus-alventosa-morell-arquitectes_8-1-300x200.jpeg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F54-viviendas-de-proteccion-publica-en-inca-illes-balears-joan-josep-fortuny-giro-plus-alventosa-morell-arquitectes_8-1-768x512.jpeg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F54-viviendas-de-proteccion-publica-en-inca-illes-balears-joan-josep-fortuny-giro-plus-alventosa-morell-arquitectes_8-1.jpeg 1499w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"634\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F07-3-1-1024x634.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-772\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F07-3-1-1024x634.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F07-3-1-300x186.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F07-3-1-768x475.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F07-3-1-1536x951.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F07-3-1.jpg 1582w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Carrer del Canonge Sebastià Garcias Palou, 54, 07300 Inca, Illes Balears, Spain, photograph by José Hevia\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Europe \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The early history of elevators in Europe largely mirrors that of North America, with elevators first coming to the continent in the 19th century, but largely limited to commercial and institutional buildings. Elevators began to be used in residential buildings in Europe in the early 20th century and particularly after World War I, but due to their cost relative to local incomes, they were relegated largely to luxury buildings. Early hints of Italy’s modern elevator abundance can be seen in six- and seven-story buildings from the 1930s, with a dozen or fewer apartments and two elevators – one for residents and the other for domestic staff.\u003Csup>11\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">After World War II, Europe’s elevator industry took off in a much bigger way. Southern European countries emerged as the largest markets, with rapid post-war urbanization and densification in Italy, Spain, and Greece bringing small elevators to middle-class condominium buildings (though not yet, for the most part, social housing).\u003Csup>12\u003C\u002Fsup> Northern Europe was less aggressive with elevator building, perhaps due to the preference among elites and middle class for single-family houses, and walk-up buildings of three stories remained common for longer than in Southern Europe. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Today, Northern Europe has caught up to Southern Europe in access to elevators in new buildings, and elevators are an expected feature of virtually all new multifamily buildings – whether rentals or condos, social or private housing, and almost any size – across Western Europe. On the Spanish island of Mallorca, a recently built 54-unit social housing project includes a total of nine elevators – one for each stairwell, with four stops (at the underground parking, the ground floor, and the two upper floors) serving six units each, with only four of the apartments above the ground floor.\u003Csup>13\u003C\u002Fsup> In Switzerland, elevators are so ubiquitous in new buildings that proper commercial elevators can be found even in some luxury two-family houses.\u003Csup>14\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Accessibility laws and codes in Western Europe have varying requirements for the installation of elevators in multifamily buildings, but for the most part, market supply and demand provides elevators even for buildings that don’t reach these required thresholds. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">France recently strengthened its accessibility rules, and now requires elevators for apartment buildings of at least four stories, compared to the previous five-story threshold. But about 80 percent of new four-story apartment buildings built in France around a decade before the law was updated already had elevators, rising to almost 100 percent for private housing, and the stricter rules were mainly aimed at ensuring that four-story social housing projects are equipped with elevators.\u003Csup>15\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In Germany, the national model building code requires elevators in apartment buildings where the floor of the uppermost level is at least 13 meters above grade in a section more or less adopted in all states, and at least one floor must be accessible in any building with more than two apartments (effectively requiring an elevator for buildings where the ground floor is parking or non-residential).\u003Csup>16\u003C\u002Fsup> But while five-story apartment buildings can legally be built without elevators, in practice even most small three-story buildings are provided with them, as the expense is low enough that it is justified by the additional rent or higher purchase price that more accessible units can command. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator requirements for new multifamily buildings vary in other countries in Europe. Italy and Spain, with the largest installed elevator fleets in Europe, also have some of the strictest accessibility requirements. They require an elevator (or room to add one at a later point) in all multistory apartment buildings, as does Sweden.\u003Csup>17\u003C\u002Fsup> In some countries – for example in Norway or Denmark, where an elevator is required starting at three stories – a developer will sometimes try to dodge the requirement by having bilevel apartments on the top two floors, making the second level the tallest level of entry.\u003Csup>18\u003C\u002Fsup> In Switzerland, the law varies by canton, but the Canton of Geneva requires an elevator for any building with at least three levels (including any underground levels, which nearly all new apartment buildings have for parking and storage), while the Canton of Zurich requires ground floor accessibility starting at five units and full-building access by elevator or ramp above eight units.\u003Csup>19\u003C\u002Fsup> Given market preference though, it is rare to find a new multi-unit building of any size in Switzerland without an elevator. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>United States \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The United States was the birthplace of the modern elevator in the 1850s, and for the first half of the device’s life, American cities likely had the most elevators. The elevator was a key enabler of the commercial skyscraper, a building typology born in the United States that would come to define its cities. High-rise American downtowns stood in contrast to European city centers, which were mostly capped at mid-rise heights. The elevator began to be used at scale in American apartment buildings in the early 20th century, starting in upper-class buildings and working its way down the income scale as the century progressed. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">New York City had a high concentration of elevators, with Manhattan already having 10,000 passenger installations by 1914, a quarter of which were in residential buildings.\u003Csup>20\u003C\u002Fsup> Russian revolutionary Leon Trotsky chose an apartment in a Bronx “workers’ district” to rent for a three-month stint in New York City in 1917 after being run out of Europe, where an “automatic service-elevator” (likely some type of dumbwaiter) was among his list of “all sorts of conveniences that we Europeans were quite unused to.”\u003Csup>21\u003C\u002Fsup> Elevators figured prominently in New York City’s uptown and outer borough apartment booms in the years between the two world wars and in the two decades after the end of World War II, in buildings typically of five or more stories in neighborhoods opened up to development by the new subway system. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">America’s elevator-fueled urban building boom would come to an end as the country turned away from its cities and towards suburban growth as the post-war decades wore on. New York City adopted a new zoning code in 1961 that severely curtailed infill development tall enough to make use of an elevator, and cities and suburbs across the nation passed similar restrictions around the same time and in the decades following. Multifamily development continued, but in more suburban areas, and at lower heights. One of the most popular building types was the garden apartment. This two- and later three-story multifamily style featured a few apartments per landing off of a series of separate, often exterior stairways, chained together in a row (sometimes winding around a courtyard) to form a larger building. Like the similar building typology in Germany and other Northern European countries, these were walk-up buildings, as were the smaller two-story infill versions popular in West Coast cities like Los Angeles and Oakland. Elevatored apartments were still being built in smaller numbers in dense cities like New York and Chicago, but the elevator industry turned more to commercial buildings like offices and hotels, and special residential uses like senior living, as the nation’s homebuilders turned to the suburbs. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Today, demand – and in many cases zoning – for elevatored multifamily buildings has returned. In 2016, the industry was back to installing around 40,000 elevators each year in the United States and Canada.\u003Csup>22\u003C\u002Fsup> Elevators continue to be installed in high-rise condo and rental apartment towers, but are also now found in large mid-rise apartment buildings with dozens or even hundreds of apartments. Units in these four- to six-story buildings, sometimes called “5-over-1s,” are arrayed along either side of long, straight, hotel-like “double-loaded corridors” in urban and suburban locations across the U.S. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">But while many elevatored apartment buildings are now being built across the United States, many walk-up complexes are also still being built, at a scale and to heights that are unique in the developed world. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Three-story garden apartment complexes, with four apartments per floor around each staircase, are still a popular typology in suburban and exurban areas in the American Sunbelt. On the fringes of Austin or the exurbs of Charlotte or Tampa, for example, these buildings continue to be built as walk-ups, much as they were over half a century ago. These types of buildings largely have elevators in Europe even when not legally required, but six to 12 units in each core (four to eight of which would be above the ground floor) are not enough to justify the high cost of elevators in America. And in some cases even much larger buildings are, in developers’ estimation, not worth the cost of an elevator. One newly built market-rate apartment complex on the outskirts of Austin has two three-story buildings with 60 units each, and no elevator.\u003Csup>23 \u003C\u002Fsup>Another in a downtown-adjacent neighborhood in Dallas has a three-story walk-up with 86 units and no elevator (the developer said that the concern was less the cost of installation than the high operating costs, since the local market could not support the rents of luxury buildings). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Within the denser cores of American cities, developers sometimes build even taller walk-ups. Particularly in New York City, Seattle, and Hawaii, building codes allow up to six stories (rather than the usual three in the U.S.) to be served by a single staircase, enabling the development of buildings on small lots with only a few units per floor. With fewer apartments in each building, the per-unit cost of an elevator rises, and it becomes tempting for developers to test the rental market’s tolerance for walk-ups, pushing them to four, five, and even six stories. Unlike two- and three-story garden apartments farther from city centers, these types of buildings can, especially on the mainland, have quite high rents. In the author’s own condo building in Brooklyn, a fifth-floor one-bedroom, one-bathroom apartment built in a mid-2010s walk-up recently rented for $3,800 per month. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">New York City’s high-quality property and elevator data allow for a quantitative analysis of developers’ propensity to build elevators. It shows that four-story buildings (which are the tallest that can be built without an elevator according to the city’s building code, at least without some occasionally exploited loopholes) almost never have elevators. The analysis found that the likelihood of a new four-story multifamily building having an elevator in New York City does not exceed 50 percent until the building reaches a total gross floor area of 24,000 square feet.\u003Csup>24\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">New five-story walk-ups are also in various stages of development in Los Angeles and Honolulu. Both cities have programs that offer zoning relief for buildings with rents that do not exceed a certain level, but without any particular design standards that require elevators even where ordinary codes and laws do not. A zoning relief bill in Honolulu was written with taller walk-ups in mind, with the text specifying that no elevator is required to take advantage of the program, and developers have built apartments up to five stories tall using the law.\u003Csup>25\u003C\u002Fsup> In Los Angeles, developers have filed plans to build five-story walk-ups with as many as 72 small studio units using the city’s ED1 program.\u003Csup>26\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"945\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F6P6A8212-1024x945.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-773\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F6P6A8212-1024x945.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F6P6A8212-300x277.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F6P6A8212-768x709.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F6P6A8212-1536x1418.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F6P6A8212-2048x1891.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A row of walk-up apartment buildings built in 2010 at 315-325 Greene Ave., Brooklyn. Photo by Andressa Randis.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">And in Seattle, developers have gone even taller in recent years, developing a number of new six-story buildings, mostly market-rate, without elevators without any difficulty leasing the units, according to somebody involved in the development of one. Not only does omitting an elevator save developers money on construction and operations, but it also allows developers to squeeze more leasable space from both the unbuilt elevator shaft and from space saved in apartment bathrooms that are not wheelchair-accessible since they can’t be reached in one anyway (see “Areas for further research”). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Tall walk-ups are allowed under the model building code used in the United States, which does not require an elevator for apartment buildings of any height, deferring to federal law on the matter. Federal law, since the passage of the Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988, only requires an elevator for new multifamily buildings if the ground floor contains no apartments (if it is reserved for parking or retail, for example), and even in that case, the elevator only has to reach the first level with apartments, not all of the floors above.\u003Csup>27 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The International Building Code, the model building code adopted in almost every U.S. jurisdiction (and in no other major country), has a section titled “Elevators required,” numbered as Section 1009.2.1, which, confusingly, does not in fact require elevators: \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In buildings where a required accessible floor or occupied roof is four or more stories above or below \u003Cem>a level of exit discharge\u003C\u002Fem>, not less than one required \u003Cem>accessible means of egress\u003C\u002Fem> shall be an elevator complying with Section 1009.4.\u003Csup>28\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The section is confusing in two ways. For one, “four or more stories above…a level of exit discharge” means what an ordinary American would call the fifth story, as the level of exit discharge is typically the ground floor, the first story above it is the second floor, and so on. More consequentially, the section starts out by referring to “a required accessible floor” without defining it – the term is unitalicized in the text, meaning there is no definition in Section 202, “Definitions.” According to those involved in drafting the model code, “a required accessible floor” is a reference to federal law. As long as federal law allows only the ground floor of a multifamily building to be accessible, adopted building codes generally impose no further requirements. As far as this author is aware, only New York City modifies the text to require elevators in buildings of at least five stories.\u003Csup>29\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">And while New York City is not as permissive as the rest of the country, developers in New York still seek out loopholes to avoid the high cost of elevators for relatively small buildings. One common way to push the four-story walk-up limit is to restrict the fifth floor to at most one-third of the area of the lower floors and make it accessible only through a private staircase from within a dwelling unit that starts on the fourth story, a trick commonly executed in new buildings. Buildings of this “4⅓- story” type range from relatively low-cost rentals to full-floor condos selling for more than $2 million. Another path to taller walk-up buildings is to extend an older building upwards, grandfathering it into an older building code (as in the author’s own building). There is a strong market for tall walk-up buildings across the city at a range of different price points, with tenants, condo buyers, and developers alike comfortable buying, selling, and renting units on and above the fourth floor without elevators, where allowed.\u003Csup>30\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Going forward, recent trends in urban planning call into question North America’s commitment to elevators and accessibility in new apartment buildings. Pro-housing advocates, identifying with the slogan “yes in my backyard” (or YIMBY – a play on “not in my backyard,” or NIMBY), are beginning to win changes to zoning and other planning laws that restrict development on most urbanized land in North America to single-family houses. Zoning for “missing middle” housing – a term for housing typologies denser than a detached single-family house but less costly than large mid- and high-rise apartments, which have gone “missing” in modern planning – involves making room for small two- through four-story buildings. These buildings are not tall enough to require or justify elevators in the U.S., a fact which does not go unnoticed by proponents. In one report, builders described the most viable type of missing middle multifamily housing to researchers at the Terner Center for Housing Innovation at the University of California, Berkeley as having eight to 12 units, “without elevators.”\u003Csup>31\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Minneapolis made headlines in 2018 by abolishing single-family zoning across the entire city, but most land is only zoned for three units up to three stories, which is not tall enough to justify an elevator given North American costs.\u003Csup>32\u003C\u002Fsup> An update to Sacramento’s general plan will allow more units on each single-family lot, hoping to stimulate more infill than Minneapolis has, but still limited to around three stories, also shy of the height where an American developer could afford to install an elevator.\u003Csup>33\u003C\u002Fsup> In Canada, Toronto’s city council recently voted to allow up to four units on land previously zoned for single-family houses, and Vancouver’s upcoming “multiplex proposal” will allow buildings of up to six units and three stories, all of which will largely be walk-ups.\u003Csup>34\u003C\u002Fsup> And townhouses – defined as small-lot, often attached single-family houses of two to four stories – are an increasingly popular dense infill building type in cities like Houston, Denver, Philadelphia, and Calgary, which sidestep even ground floor accessibility requirements and offer no elevators (except, occasionally, slow models allowed to be built to lesser standards in very high-end homes).\u003Csup>35\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Urbanist ambivalence towards elevators and idolization of walk-ups has a long history in North America, dating back to ur-urbanist Jane Jacobs. In \u003Cem>The Death and Life of Great American Cities\u003C\u002Fem>, the New York City- and later Toronto-based writer repeatedly portrayed elevator buildings as anti-urban and sterile, with the cabs being filthy and dangerous. While she took pains to clarify that she wasn’t against all buildings with elevators, she wrote that “[e]levator apartments” can be “probably the most dangerous way of doing [density].” Later in the book she devoted a page to the problem of elevators in high-rise public housing projects, listing all of the evils that can occur in them: “children urinat[ing],” “extortion and sexual molestation of younger children by older children” by day, and “adult attacks, muggings, and robberies” by night. She proposed full-time elevator attendants as the “only solution that I can see to this problem,” validated by what she’d heard of some buildings in Caracas, Venezuela, where female tenants operated elevators by day and were replaced by men at night.\u003Csup>36\u003C\u002Fsup> Writing in 1962, Boston-based planner and sociologist Herbert Gans echoed Jacobs’s criticisms, writing in a review of her book that “the interior streets and elevators” of public housing projects “invite rape, theft, and vandalism. Areas like this are blighted by dullness from the start, and are destined to become slums before their time.”\u003Csup>37\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The distaste from Jane Jacobs and her mid-century urbanist peers for elevator buildings would eventually leap off the page and into real world planning in New York. In 1959, Jacobs led a group of local activists who tried to convince the New York City Housing Authority to scrap their plans for high-rises at the future site of the DeWitt Clinton Houses in East Harlem, and instead opt for an alternative design of four- and five-story walk-ups. The public housing authority ignored the group’s proposal and instead built something close to the original plan, but the anti-elevator contingent would eventually prevail upon the city at the planned West Village Houses in Jacobs’s own West Village neighborhood. Along half a dozen blocks of Washington Street, a block inland from the deindustrialized Hudson River waterfront, Jacobs and activists in her orbit agitated against high-rise towers, or even mid-rises tall enough for elevators. “The dangers of unattended elevators to children – and adults,” read a brochure, “are already too well known to require retelling here,” and anyway, in the Village, they wrote, “walking upstairs is considered a sound and healthy diversion.”\u003Csup>38\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In 1969, the group won their fight. Blocks of five-story walk-ups were approved for the sites, and the city’s Housing and Development Administrator told the New York Times that “[o]pposition to the plan had centered around” the lack of elevators, but “[i]n my opinion, the design is the plan’s greatest strength. It conforms to our commitment that new housing must not destroy a community,” as elevator buildings presumably would, “but should, instead, strengthen it.” Like 19th century brownstones, the austere red brick buildings were designed with steps leading to even the ground floor apartments to offer privacy from the street, so none of the units are accessible to this day.\u003Csup>39\u003C\u002Fsup> The lack of elevators would make the West Village Houses ineligible for a federal mortgage, so the city had to redirect funding from lower-income neighborhoods to subsidize it, with financial assistance to the project continuing for generations.\u003Csup>40\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Jane Jacobs’s and Herbert Gans’s dislike of elevator buildings was tied to what Jacobs called “the related corridor problem.” By this she meant the North American habit, which grew stronger in the latter half of the 20th century, of arraying apartments off of long corridors. This stands in contrast to the more common pattern in the rest of the world of a few apartments organized around the landing of a single staircase. American and Canadian building codes don’t usually allow these so-called “point access blocks,” as they require two stairways in even small buildings. North American codes result in long corridors, as architects and developers pile as many apartments as possible onto each floor to avoid expensive duplication of these two required staircases. This tendency to load a single corridor with many apartments also makes North America’s very expensive elevators more affordable on a per-unit basis. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Americans and Canadians are rethinking these code requirements, and smaller single-stair point access blocks are coming back in style among planners and architects, and perhaps soon, in building codes themselves.\u003Csup>41\u003C\u002Fsup> If these new buildings are equipped with elevators, they would solve many of the problems of anonymous, hotel-like corridors that Jacobs and Gans associated with elevator buildings. But if left unchecked, the high cost of North American elevators would become even more of a problem as the number of apartments in a building falls, discouraging construction beyond certain heights and causing developers to forgo elevators where they are optional. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cbr>2.1.2 Elevator retrofits in existing buildings \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">People in the developed world are rapidly aging, and housing stock growth is slowing down as population growth is too. It’s a common saying in architecture that 80 percent of buildings that will exist by 2050 have already been built, driving home the need to retrofit existing buildings for sustainability in addition to perfecting techniques for new construction.\u003Csup>42\u003C\u002Fsup> The same logic applies to accessibility and elevators – if most of the homes that we’ll grow old with have already been built, then it is necessary to find ways to bring elevators to buildings that don’t currently have them. And so across Europe and Asia, governments are using subsidies and other policies to support the construction of elevators in older walk-up apartment buildings. Critical to those efforts, though, is the affordability of the installations, as subsidy and private funds for retrofit projects are limited. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Adding elevators to older buildings is more expensive and logistically challenging than installing them in new ones, especially if the building is occupied and access must be maintained throughout the construction project. One of the biggest challenges is the issue of placement. Ideally, the staircase has enough room inside of it to build the shaft, making it possible to offer step-free access to upper floor apartments without leaving the footprint of the building, altering the staircase, or taking living space away from apartments. If that room is not available, then the shaft can be built outside of the building and attached with a balcony, or space can be carved out of dwelling units. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">U-shaped, or switchback, staircases with landings halfway between stories present special design challenges, since the easiest place to put the elevator is on the outside of the building, where residents would still have to climb half a flight of stairs to get from the elevator to their apartment. Sometimes this is simply accepted as a compromise – wheelchair users won’t be able to move independently, but the elderly and ambulatory disabled who can manage a few stairs, parents with young children, or movers or anybody else carrying large items can at least avoid most of the steps in the building. But for more ambitious property owners who want full accessibility, the staircase can be demolished and rebuilt to extend beyond the old façade of the building, replacing switchback stairs with a straight flight of stairs heading down and beyond the old façade to an elevator at the end, and then a narrow corridor heading back to the apartments.\u003Csup>43 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-1-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-775\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-1-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-1-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-1-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-1-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-1-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-1-scaled.jpg 1810w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-2-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-774\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-2-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-2-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-2-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-2-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-2-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240402_CFB_retrofit-drawing-CMYK-2-scaled.jpg 1810w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Europe and China \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Costs in Europe can start around the low tens of thousands of euros for installations that can sit inside of a stairwell – not much more than an elevator installed in an already built shaft in a new building – and rise to over €100,000 for an elevator that has to be attached to the façade or break through existing floors.\u003Csup>44\u003C\u002Fsup> In Chinese retrofits, elevators typically attach to the façade, and cost less than $100,000.\u003Csup>45\u003C\u002Fsup> Since older apartment buildings in Europe and Asia are typically designed with only a few units per floor off of a single staircase and apartments are usually individually owned, as few as a handful and up to a few dozen different owners have to come together to agree to move forward with a project – enough owners to create a coordination hassle, but few enough that the cost of the project has to be carefully controlled lest the installation become unaffordable. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As with all things elevators, China has the largest market for retrofits. A whopping 51,000 elevators were retrofitted into older buildings in China in 2021 – about as many elevators as were sold in total in North America. Elevators were not common in new Chinese apartment buildings until the late 1990s, so some walk-ups are taller than the five or six stories that was normally the limit in the West, with one 24-story walk-up sitting on a steep slope in Chongqing attracting particular attention (though, to be fair, it has entrances on multiple levels).\u003Csup>46\u003C\u002Fsup> China’s retrofit installations are part of a broader goal, with high-level government backing, to retrofit up to 3 million older walk-up apartment buildings for the country’s rapidly aging population, with one source claiming that over 70 percent of “old buildings inhabited by the urban elderly do not have elevators installed.” Apartment owners pay into projects in proportion to their benefit, with those on upper floors paying more than those on lower floors. Owners near the ground who won’t benefit at all sometimes are sometimes compensated for the noise and loss of light.\u003Csup>47\u003C\u002Fsup> Local governments offer subsidies in the tens of thousands of dollars per new elevator, and contracts to display advertisements in cabins can even cover ongoing maintenance.\u003Csup>48\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the West, Spain is one of the leaders in infill elevators. Adding elevators to occupied apartment buildings is so common that Spain has developed a consistent legal framework to make the process easier for owners, and in rarer cases even require that the work move forward against the wishes of a building’s majority. The most common path to a retrofit is a law that allows the majority of owners within an apartment building to vote to undertake accessibility projects, such as the installation of an elevator, with mandatory contributions from everybody who owns a unit in the building. But even without majority consent, a single owner who is disabled or over the age of 70 can compel the rest of the building to contribute to such a project, as long as the additional annual cost of the work – after subsidies by the government, or even residents themselves – does not exceed that of 12 months of ordinary condominium fees.\u003Csup>49\u003C\u002Fsup> And to facilitate the work even beyond government subsidy programs, public sidewalk space must be made available by local governments to accommodate the elevator if needed.\u003Csup>50 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond Spain, retrofit projects can be found all across Europe. In the 1980s, the Swedish government began a program of working with municipal housing corporations to install prefabricated elevators into post-war walk-up apartment buildings.\u003Csup>51\u003C\u002Fsup> Germany has offered both grants and loans for projects, while the Croatian Lift Association claims that two-thirds of all buildings in Croatia with at least four stories have expressed interest in installing elevators.\u003Csup>52\u003C\u002Fsup> In Italy, the government will rebate 75 percent of the costs to install an elevator and do other accessibility work in condominium buildings, up to €30,000 or €40,000 per unit, depending on the building’s size.\u003Csup>53\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>North America \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In North America, elevator retrofits to occupied walk-up apartment buildings are much rarer. Americans and Canadians are just as concerned with accessibility as Europeans, but the cost of projects tends to be prohibitive. Installations in existing buildings are concentrated in loft conversions, or residential renovations of obsolete industrial or commercial buildings. Wealthy homeowners will sometimes install so-called limited use\u002Flimited application (LULA) elevators within their own existing single-family homes, but these are much slower than elevators used for multifamily or commercial projects, and typically only move residents between floors within a single dwelling unit. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In New York City, there were a flurry of private tenement house rehabilitations starting around the 1930s that added elevators, with the intention of making worn-out housing more desirable.\u003Csup>54\u003C\u002Fsup> The renovations were rare, though, and involved clearing the buildings and often substantially reconfiguring the floor plans. Towards the end of the 20th century, there was a trend of non-profit housing operators combining vacant Old Law tenements and driving double-loaded corridors through the middle of the buildings, with an elevator located off the new corridor (sometimes in an old air shaft). Each tenement would start out with around 10 or 12 larger apartments, so combining multiple buildings would provide the economies of scale to justify costly elevator installations, especially since non-profit landlords had access to government subsidy.\u003Csup>55\u003C\u002Fsup> More European- or Chinese-style exterior elevator retrofits to at least partly-occupied market-rate buildings did happen in New York, but were much rarer, and have never been offered government subsidy.\u003Csup>56\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Outside of New York, elevator retrofits in the rest of the United States are no more common. Chicago’s tradition of back porches in small walk-up buildings could easily accommodate infill elevators, as could deck-access buildings (resembling motels, with an outside corridor connecting units next to each other) in mid-century buildings across cities in the American Sun Belt. Honolulu has many three-story deck-access buildings, where a dozen or more upper-floor units could be served by a single elevator. But with rare exceptions, the high cost of elevators in the United States precludes accessibility retrofits of even ideal building types. While subsidy programs would help, the five-figure sums offered by governments in Europe and China would not go very far in the much more expensive American elevator market. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.1.3 Multifamily elevator ratios \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">User interviews show that some of the main concerns about elevators by North American wheelchair users who live in apartment buildings are redundancy and reliability. Multiple wheelchair users said they would not consider renting or buying an apartment that did not have access to at least two elevators, and many interviewed had experiences being trapped in (or out of) their apartment due to the lack of a working elevator. Single-elevator buildings (or segments of buildings) are common throughout the world, but fewer elevators are typically provided per apartment in North America than in Europe, due to the size and cost of the installations, as well as the relative lack of small elevator buildings in North America. Very few countries have legal requirements to install more than one elevator, with the market typically left to determine redundancy and elevator ratios. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Where an elevator is included in a project, the number of cabs is determined in different ways in North America and Europe. Due to much lower prices and smaller sizes in Europe, each elevator typically serves far fewer apartments than in North America. However, due to differences in building design and much larger apartment buildings in North America (only tangentially driven by elevator costs), multifamily residents there appear more likely to have access to more than one elevator. Mid-rise point access blocks of just a few apartments per floor served by each stairway and elevator are more common in Europe, with mid- and high-rise double-loaded corridor buildings with a single bank of elevators serving many more units more common in North America. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-1-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-776\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-1-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-1-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-1-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-1-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-1-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-1-scaled.jpg 1810w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-2-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-777\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-2-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-2-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-2-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-2-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-2-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_floor-plans-CMYK-2-scaled.jpg 1810w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Reference drawings by Alfred Twu.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the U.S., the typical rule of thumb is that one elevator should be provided for every 50 to 100 apartments, with a second elevator usually provided if a building reaches around eight stories for redundancy and reasonable wait times, regardless of unit count (buildings this tall often but not always have more than 100 units, though New York City is sometimes an exception, with its small lots and more efficient vertical circulation requirements). In Canadian high-rises, it is common to have even more units served by a single elevator. One analysis conducted by a Toronto real estate professional of over 100 condo towers under development or recently completed in that city showed that the median ratio for buildings completed or with finalized designs is one elevator serving every 112 apartments, with some projects having 150 units or more units to each elevator. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In Europe, on the other hand, it is less common for buildings to be large enough that residents have access to more than one elevator. When buildings have multiple elevators, it is usually because they are broken up into multiple point access block segments, with each elevator serving a separate section. When buildings or segments thereof are large enough for two elevators, it’s often because of height rather than unit count. As such, buildings in Europe with multiple elevators tend to have much lower ratios of units to elevators, with perhaps 30 units to each elevator rather than the 100 often found in North America. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This lower ratio of units to elevators in Europe likely has ramifications for reliability and availability, since mechanics say that breakdowns are correlated with use rather than time, although data is proprietary and unavailable (see “Areas for further research”). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One consistency observed over a number of mid-rise multifamily projects in both the United States and Europe is that elevator costs, in buildings that have them, tend to equal roughly 2 percent of total construction costs, irrespective of the price of individual installations. In other words, developers respond to price by adding or removing elevators from their projects. Smaller developments in Europe have elevators where similarly sized ones in North America do not, while larger buildings in Europe have more elevators per apartment compared to those in North America. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.2 Cost\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevators in the United States and Canada are dramatically more expensive than those in the rest of the developed world. There are many ways to measure cost, but on the most basic level, new elevator installations – defined as the parts and labor to install a device in a new building, including the rails, support structure, machine, elevator cabin, car and landing doors, controller, and all other ancillary systems, but not the structure of the hoistway that it sits inside – are at least three times as expensive in the United States and Canada as in Western Europe. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond new installations, there are other associated costs that are much higher in the United States and Canada than abroad. Elevator hoistways (also known as shafts) are more expensive to build, and their larger size in North America crowds out other productive uses of building space. Costs incurred after initial installation – money spent on service, maintenance, repairs, monitoring, and modernizations – are also much higher in North America than in Europe, with building owners paying a premium similar to that of new installations. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.2.1 New installation costs \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">New elevators in North America cost at least three times as much as in Western Europe, after accounting for cost-of-living differences (in nominal terms, the North American cost premium is even higher). Elevators on both continents are sold as complete packages, and developers or general contractors are quoted a single fixed price that includes parts and labor, making costs easy to compare across regions. A few typical installations serve to illustrate the differences in price, which were confirmed by other proposals viewed. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In order to keep the installations analyzed as consistent as possible, only four- and six-stop elevators (plus one slightly more complicated five-stop installation from France) are presented. While high-rise elevators are the most technologically interesting and tall buildings would not be possible without elevators, most elevators in the world are in fact low- and mid-rise installations. These are also the most homogenous, with machine room less (MRL) electric traction models being most popular for these heights in both Europe and the United States (hydraulic elevators, which are an older technology that has largely fallen out of use in new installations in Europe, still have significant market share in North America, and are slightly cheaper to install, but come with higher operating costs). Elevator companies also often present a single quote for all elevators when bidding on larger projects, so taller buildings with multiple elevators complicate price comparisons. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One consequence of using mid-rise installations was that we were not able to find any Canadian proposals with enough detail to include in the comparison table. Canada has a higher housing stock growth rate than the United States, and tends to build more high-rises and larger and taller mid-rises, beyond the four- to six-stop, single-cab jobs analyzed in our table. However, figures viewed with less detail suggest that Canada is much closer to the U.S. than to Western Europe on price, with Canadian dollar-denominated costs coming in roughly equal to American dollar-denominated ones in the United States. When applying a purchasing power parity conversion, this would make Canadian examples only about 15 percent cheaper than those in the U.S. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">We were also not able to find enough high-quality information for installations in high-income countries in East Asia to include any quotes in the comparison table. However, our research suggests that in South Korea, a six-stop, 16-person (roughly 2,500-lb.) elevator might cost around $32,500, or around $53,000 with a purchasing power parity conversion applied, in line with six-stop costs in Western Europe, but for a larger car. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-gallery has-nested-images columns-default is-cropped wp-block-gallery-1 is-layout-flex wp-block-gallery-is-layout-flex\">\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" data-id=\"778\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-1-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-778\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-1-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-1-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-1-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-1-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-1-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-1-scaled.jpg 1810w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-2-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-779\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-2-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-2-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-2-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-2-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-2-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240513_CFB_cost-comparison-CMYK-2-scaled.jpg 1810w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.2.2 Post-installation costs \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevators are expensive to install, but most of the industry’s revenue – and therefore building owners’ expense – comes from things other than the initial installation, particularly in developed markets like Europe and the United States with low population growth. Profits are even more tilted towards post-installation services, and many manufacturers offer new installations at or near wholesale cost in order to win more lucrative service and maintenance contracts.\u003Csup>57\u003C\u002Fsup> As a rule of thumb, annual ongoing costs equal around 3.5 to 5 percent of the installation cost for the elevator in any given market.\u003Csup>58\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Comparing costs to operate elevators can be difficult, since the equipment is less standardized than a new installation. Costs can vary greatly depending on the age and type of elevator, the use it receives, and size-related factors. There are many different kinds of costs in owning an elevator, from predictable recurring expenses like electricity, inspection, monitoring, and preventative maintenance, to less predictable but still frequent outlays for services like repairs and disentrapments, to very high and infrequent costs like modernizations (where many components are replaced at once every generation or so). One thing that almost all of these costs have in common is that they are far higher in North America than in Western Europe. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Affordable housing developers in New York City underwrite total annual elevator operating and maintenance expenses of $7,500 per device.\u003Csup>59\u003C\u002Fsup> A review of actual expenses for a handful of multifamily rental, condo, and co-op buildings around New York and Washington, D.C., shows similar or slightly higher elevator expenditures, with a little over $5,000 per device going to regular maintenance contracts, and the remainder split between inspections and repairs. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Annual costs in Europe are dramatically lower. In Spain, one academic analysis put the annual cost of preventative maintenance contracts at around €900 per year, plus €300 for typical repairs.\u003Csup>60\u003C\u002Fsup> One German elevator maintenance company advertises maintenance contracts at €59 per month (€708 per year) for elevators with up to six stops, or a more affordable €420 per year for low-maintenance MRL models that only require one visit every six months.\u003Csup>61\u003C\u002Fsup> A 2010 report by the City of Paris on the French capital’s notoriously poorly maintained and un-modernized elevators (at least at the time) cited an elevator maintenance company as saying that the average annual maintenance contract cost for a condominium building was €2,000 per elevator, with France requiring service visits every six weeks.\u003Csup>62\u003C\u002Fsup> An independent Belgian elevator company claims that annual maintenance contracts there average a similar amount, with a separate Belgian landlord paying roughly €1,000 per year to Orona for maintenance and monitoring for each 630-kg MRL elevator in newer mid-rise buildings.\u003Csup>63\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Codes in both Europe and North America require constant monitoring of in-cab communications devices intended for entrapped riders, and these monitoring costs are often folded into general service and maintenance contracts. Regulators on both continents require telephone monitoring, but newer devices in North America must also provide two-way visual communication devices – video monitoring, screens that can display text written from within a call center, and basic input devices for riders – so that people who are deaf, hard of hearing, and mute and who don’t have working cell phones can be reassured that help is on the way after they call for it. This requirement is still being rolled out and only applies to new or modernized devices, but early indications are that it could nearly double monthly monitoring costs (see 5.3.3, “Two-way audiovisual communication,” for further discussion). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As for periodic inspections, the most intensive test required in North America is called the Category 5 (or Cat 5) test, which happens every five years (typically at the same time as the annual Category 1 test), whose scope is described in a later section titled “Alternative testing.” In New York City, one local independent elevator service company charges $2,000 for the roughly four-hour Cat 5 test (or $1,300 for the roughly two-hour annual Cat 1 test in other years), and a separate company charges an additional $780 for the required third-party “witnessing” to ensure the integrity of the test and guard against corruption. In Toronto the price is similar, with one firm advertising Cat 5 tests starting at $2,995 (CAD).\u003Csup>64\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In Europe, prices for inspections are, as usual, much lower. France’s five-year test costs around €250 before tax, and usually takes at most two hours.\u003Csup>65 \u003C\u002Fsup>A major testing firm in Austria offers the required annual test for €280.80 (taxes included) for elevators with up to five stops.\u003Csup>66\u003C\u002Fsup> In Italy, testing must be done every two years, and can be carried out by either government entities or so-called notified bodies (whose responsibilities are covered in greater depth in chapter 5, “Technical codes and standards”), with prices of around €140 plus tax being typical.\u003Csup>67\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Once every generation or so, elevators must be completely overhauled, called a “modernization.” These projects can vary in scope and price, with modernizations of more recently installed elevators costing less than modernizations of older devices. Modernization costs for the oldest elevators tend to very roughly match new installations in price, with a similar disparity between U.S. and European costs. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Public procurement documents can be a rich source of modernization cost information in the United States. TK Elevator quoted a municipality outside of Denver $133,236 in 2021 to modernize a two-stop, city-owned 3,500-lb. outdoor hydraulic elevator installed over 20 years earlier that had been damaged by the fire department while rescuing an entrapped homeless person. In 2023, a Florida airport contracted with Schindler to modernize four low-rise hydraulic elevators first installed in 1989 for $540,991, or around $135,000 per device.\u003Csup>68\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Belgian government in 2014 put the median cost of modernizing an elevator up to 30 years old at €8,000, or €20,000 for a slightly older elevator (equivalent to around $13,000 and $32,000, respectively, in 2023 after adjusting for purchasing power parity and inflation).\u003Csup>69\u003C\u002Fsup> One social housing operator in Paris estimated that modernizing 95 percent of its 475-device fleet of elevators would cost a bit over €18 million according to a 2010 report (or nearly $66,000 per cab after adjustments).\u003Csup>70\u003C\u002Fsup> A French consumer group estimated the typical modernization at €30,000 in 2018, with a different source in 2022 putting the cost at €20,000 to €50,000 per elevator.\u003Csup>71\u003C\u002Fsup> One German website estimated €65,000 for a substantial modernization of a 20-year-old, six-stop office building elevator.\u003Csup>72 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.3  Work timelines \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Labor is the major cost in installing and maintaining elevators, and basic rules of thumb suggest that it takes roughly twice as long to install an elevator in a new building in the United States as in Europe. In the U.S., the variable length portion of an installation requires around one week per floor of labor from a full-time, two-person crew, plus perhaps some extra time for fixed components that don’t vary according to height.\u003Csup>73\u003C\u002Fsup> In Western Europe, typically elevators are installed by the same crews at a rate of at least two stops per week.\u003Csup>74 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Generalizing about the time to complete a modernization of an existing elevator is more difficult given the heterogeneity of this work, but evidence points towards longer timelines in the United States, with accessibility consequences for those who depend on elevators. In Europe, Schindler cites three to five weeks for a complete replacement of an elevator, and the Berlin Tenants’ Association wrote about a case where a modernization in high-rise of well over a dozen stories was planned to take three to four weeks. The German Lift Journal put the timeline for a partial modernization in what they called a tall building at two to four weeks, or around eight weeks for a complete modernization.\u003Csup>75\u003C\u002Fsup> A representative from a firm in Italy specializing in modernizations said that typical modernizations of a six-stop elevator can take anywhere from just one week to, for example, replace the controller and electrical control system (including buttons), to three or four weeks to do more intensive work like the aforementioned work plus replacement of the traction motor and landing and cabin doors, while a complete replacement of an entire elevator (beyond the normal scope of a modernization) takes eight to 10 weeks. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Modernizations in the United States take about twice as long. A facility management trade publication put the typical modernization downtime at four weeks for a two- or three-stop hydraulic elevator, or 10 to 12 weeks for a high-rise traction elevator.\u003Csup>76\u003C\u002Fsup> One modernization consultant in Toronto put the timeline for a more intensive six-stop elevator modernization at eight to 20 weeks depending on different variables, a timeline which matches what a New York City consultant told a magazine covering homeowners associations in the region.\u003Csup>77\u003C\u002Fsup> Experts said that greater elevator capacities in North America make modernizations more time-consuming, and also cited increased use of preassembly and prefabrication and better-trained mechanics as possible contributing factors to quicker projects in Europe. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Compared to new installations, the modernization sector globally is more dominated by independent firms, which in North America are less likely to be unionized (or, in the case of New York City, are more likely to be signatories to the only-in-New-York International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers’ Local 3 Elevator Division, which does not impose the same restrictive work rules as the IUEC). Controllers, machines, and other components used in modernizations in North America are more likely to be sourced from independent firms which manufacture only for the North American market, as parts made for the global market and certified to European norms used globally are often not allowed to be used in North America. This more limited availability of components (see chapter 5, “Technical codes and standards”) may also contribute to longer modernization timelines in the U.S. and Canada. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.4 Safety outcomes \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In 1911, when the consolidated Otis Elevator Company was only 13 years old, Charles Otis set out to celebrate the 100-year anniversary of the birth of his late father, Elisha Otis. Otis the corporation was the largest elevator company in the world, but Elisha Otis had not been a particularly important figure in the elevator’s history up until that point. He performed a number of fairly unremarkable demonstrations of a safety device in 1854 at a World’s Fair in New York City, and the company was a minor player in the city’s burgeoning elevator market. The elevator had been invented millennia earlier, and incremental improvements had been made, often independently, throughout the United States and Europe in the 19th century. So when Charles Otis sought to commemorate his father’s birth, he could not claim that he invented the device itself, and instead related a mostly apocryphal scene at the World’s Fair involving a rapt crowd watching on as Elisha Otis cut the cable holding up the platform that he was standing on. Rather than plunging to his death, a safety device engaged, free fall was averted, and the modern safety elevator was born.\u003Csup>78 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The choice to exaggerate the World’s Fair demonstration was driven by the importance of safety in popularizing the elevator, an emphasis which remains to this day in the elevator industry and its regulation. Nowadays, elevator free falls have been mostly eliminated through redundant steel elevator ropes and the use of safety brakes like the one that Otis demonstrated in 1854, and the hundreds of millions of elevator trips taken worldwide each day pose very little risk to users.\u003Csup>79\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.4.1 Elevator safety \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Around 12,000 Americans are seen in emergency rooms for elevator-related injuries each year, according to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, but that includes incidents as minor as cuts and scrapes from tripping on the threshold. The commission does not report statistics on elevator user fatalities, as there are too few to generate an estimate based on their sampling.\u003Csup>80 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The risk of elevators throughout their history has long been to the workers who build, maintain, and work around them, as they often have to work in unprotected shafts and in other situations that do not involve the full suite of safety precautions afforded to users\u003Csup>.81\u003C\u002Fsup> Vertical transportation mechanics face an elevated risk of dying on the job relative to other occupations, with five workplace fatalities across a total elevator and escalator installer and maintainer workforce of 22,510 people in 2021 in the United States.\u003Csup>82\u003C\u002Fsup> The Bureau of Labor Statistics does not track data on the elevator occupation to directly to make proper comparisons to other jobs, but it is safe to say that elevator mechanics die on the job at much higher rate than that of the general U.S. workforce, and somewhat more often than construction workers as a whole, but at a much lower rate than roofers and structural iron and steel workers (the most dangerous construction occupations) and other dangerous non-construction occupations like loggers, fishers, and hunters.\u003Csup>83 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Just as the American construction industry as a whole is less safe than the European construction industry, with workers having a higher likelihood of dying on the job, the U.S. also appears to see more elevator mechanic deaths relative to its stock of elevators.\u003Csup>84\u003C\u002Fsup> From 2003 through 2020, the United States saw 74 fatal on-the-job injuries among elevator or escalator workers according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics – on average, a little over four fatalities per year.\u003Csup>85\u003C\u002Fsup> Relative to the total installed stock of elevators in 2020, that works out to 3.9 occupational fatalities per million elevators per year. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The European Lift Association, on the other hand, tallied an average of nearly a dozen fatal accidents per year among elevator workers across 24 reporting countries from 2013 through 2021, with only two total fatalities among escalator workers in that period.\u003Csup>86\u003C\u002Fsup> It is unclear which 24 countries those numbers come from, but given that the European Lift Association collects market data across 31 countries with nearly 6.5 installed elevators in 2021 – mostly in higher-income countries in Western Europe, which are more likely to collect and report occupational fatality data – it is likely that the United States has a higher occupational fatality rate for elevator workers per device than Europe.\u003Csup>87\u003C\u002Fsup> (Non-fatal injury data exists in both the U.S. and Europe, but different definitions and healthcare systems make the data difficult to compare.) \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2.4.2 Alternative transportation safety \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator safety is usually considered in isolation, but in reality, elevators form just one part of the vertical circulation in buildings, and safety outcomes should be considered holistically for all ways to move around the built environment. Elevators are never the only option for moving up and down a building, and compete for use with stairs, and, to a lesser extent, escalators, trash chutes, and even cranes during the construction phase of a building’s life. On some level, elevators even compete with cars and other forms of horizontal transportation, since traveling up and down taller buildings and between lower-density homes, stores, offices, and other places are in competition with each other for people’s travel habits. An even rough quantification of the risk tradeoff is beyond the scope of this study, but a broad overview of the statistics and anecdotes conveys the importance of thinking not only about the safety of elevators themselves, but also about how the human body copes with their absence. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Stairs are the most viable alternative to elevators in most cases. As early as 1900, stairs were identified in Germany as a greater risk to people moving up and down a building than elevators.\u003Csup>88\u003C\u002Fsup> From 1990 through 2012, an average of over 1 million Americans were treated annually in emergency rooms for stair-related injuries.\u003Csup>89 \u003C\u002Fsup>Statistics on stair-related fatalities are generally unavailable in the United States, but in 1980, 652 people in England and Wales – which, like the U.S., have a built environment oriented around single-family houses with stairs as the primary means of vertical circulation – died from accidental falls on stairs or steps, with\u003Csup> \u003C\u002Fsup>85 percent of these deaths happening in the home.\u003Csup>90\u003C\u002Fsup> By the 1990s, stairs were likely killing over 1,100 residents of the United Kingdom per year.\u003Csup>91 \u003C\u002Fsup>Extrapolated to the current population of the United States, this suggests more than 6,000 Americans might die each year falling down stairs. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Thinking about transportation more broadly, the biggest competitor to the elevator is probably not stairs and one’s own two feet, but the automobile. North America’s relative lack of elevators is only in part due to our greater acceptance of walk-up apartment buildings, and is also driven by a built environment of single-family houses on quarter-acre lots, connected to each other and to other buildings by an extensive network of roads and highways that most people travel on in single-occupancy personal vehicles. As a result, Americans travel more than twice as much by car as Europeans do.\u003Csup>92\u003C\u002Fsup> Nearly 43,000 people died on America’s roads in 2022, giving the United States the highest rate of per capita traffic fatalities in the developed world.\u003Csup>93\u003C\u002Fsup> Cars are, and likely always will be, held to a much lower safety standard than elevators, so every trip shifted from automobiles to walking or transit with a short elevator ride at the beginning or end is likely to increase safety. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. Cabin Size\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator cabins (also known as elevator cars) come in a range of different sizes, with ramifications for accessibility, emergency operations, price, building design, and prevalence. Elevator cabins have gotten larger over time, and are larger in the United States and Canada than in other developed countries. Cab sizes generally grow in response to regulation mandating access to varying degrees for disabled people and emergency medical services, but the growth in size comes with tradeoffs for cost and overall access, including by disabled people and paramedics. In general, the number of elevators – both within a building but also in any given society – is inversely proportional to the elevators’ size, though correlation and causation are difficult to untangle given limited and anecdotal data.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator cabin size regulation in residential buildings is driven by accommodation for two groups: people in wheelchairs, and emergency services – paramedics transporting people on gurneys (also known as stretchers) and firefighters. Beyond those groups, there are other considerations like passenger traffic capacity, redundancy in case of maintenance or breakdowns, and accommodation of furniture during moves in and out of the building, but these are not usually regulated by government and are instead left to the market, although they may be incidentally provided for through regulation. Cabin sizes can range from very small, accommodating just one or two standing passengers (as with some elevators retrofitted into very old walk-up buildings in Europe), to very large, accommodating everybody who might conceivably want to use an elevator in any way they would like to use it (as in new North American buildings).\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240625_CFB_car-shaft-size-CMYK-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-780\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240625_CFB_car-shaft-size-CMYK-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240625_CFB_car-shaft-size-CMYK-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240625_CFB_car-shaft-size-CMYK-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240625_CFB_car-shaft-size-CMYK-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240625_CFB_car-shaft-size-CMYK-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240625_CFB_car-shaft-size-CMYK-scaled.jpg 1810w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.1 Europe \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator cabins in Europe are and historically have been some of the smallest in the world. Elevators with a rated capacity of around 320 kg are common in older apartment buildings, which might be barely large enough for one person seated in a small wheelchair. Today, regulations require much larger cabins for new installations, with two sizes being the most common: what is known according to the European norm as a type 2 car for wheelchairs (with the cabin interior having a clear width of 1.1 m, a clear depth of 1.4 m, and a rated capacity of 630 kg), and a type 3 car for stretchers (measuring 1.1 m × 2.1 m with a rated capacity of 1,000 kg).\u003Csup>94\u003C\u002Fsup> Both cars comfortably accommodate somebody seated in a very large powered wheelchair with at least one person standing behind them, but both cabins typically require wheelchair users to enter facing forward and then back out without turning (or vice versa), without enough room to turn within the cabin to accommodate both entry and exit facing forward (unless the elevator has doors on opposite sides, though this is not typical). Buttons inside of the elevator car are located on the side of the car, so turning the wheelchair is not required for a user to push them on their own. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While these are the most standard required sizes in Europe, there is variation across the continent in law, both in terms of exact cabin size required and the building height at which a cabin must accommodate a stretcher. As a general rule, the countries with the most elevators per capita have the loosest rules on size. Geographically, this means that Southern European countries with vast elevatored housing stocks tend to allow the smallest elevators, while Northern European countries with more walk-ups and single-family homes tend to require larger elevators at lower thresholds. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Spain and Italy, as discussed in section 2, “Access,” of this report, have the largest elevator fleets in Europe and some of the strictest rules about when an elevator is required, and also tend to allow the smallest cabins. In Spain, the standard type 2 car of 630 kilograms fulfills the requirement for accessibility, with a door span of 90 cm.\u003Csup>95\u003C\u002Fsup> However, what makes Spain fairly unique in Europe is that there is no requirement for residential buildings at any height to install a larger cabin that can accommodate a stretcher, and high-rises can be found with only elevators of this size.\u003Csup>96\u003C\u002Fsup> In Italy, the minimum size of a wheelchair elevator in an apartment building is smaller than usual, at 0.95 m × 1.3 m (accommodating 480 kg) with a 80-cm doorspan (or 31.5 in., which is still large enough for the vast majority of powerchairs).\u003Csup>97 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At the other end of the size spectrum is the Netherlands. The Netherlands has a long tradition of single-family dwellings, and the second-largest proportion of single-family houses in the European Union, after Ireland.\u003Csup>98\u003C\u002Fsup> Dutch cities and suburbs are full of two- and three-story townhouses with steep staircases, and means of egress rules for apartment buildings are some of the strictest in Europe, making it challenging to build small multifamily apartment buildings. This tends to bifurcate the new housing stock between townhouses on the one hand, and larger apartment buildings on the other, with fewer small and mid-sized multifamily buildings than many other countries in Europe (much like the United States).\u003Csup>99\u003C\u002Fsup> The Netherlands has one of the smallest per capita elevator stocks in Europe, with one-fifth as many elevators per capita as Switzerland or Spain and about half as many as France or Germany.\u003Csup>100\u003C\u002Fsup> It also has some of the strictest rules about cabin sizes, requiring them to be 1.05 m × 2.05 m (slightly smaller than the standard type 3 requirement) for any building with more than six units, and to have space to accommodate such an elevator in any new multistory building, meaning that there is rarely a circumstance where the standard European type 2 wheelchair elevator is provided in new buildings.\u003Csup>101\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In other countries in Western Europe, rules about elevator cabin sizes typically lie somewhere between the two extremes. In Sweden and Norway, the requirement for a stretcher-sized type 3 elevator starts at four stories.\u003Csup>102\u003C\u002Fsup> In Germany, it’s required for stories whose finished floor level is above 13 m (so, starting at five or six stories).\u003Csup>103\u003C\u002Fsup> In France, a stretcher elevator is never legally required, but a norm advises their use beginning at eight stories.\u003Csup>104\u003C\u002Fsup> In Vienna and Denmark, they are required for buildings where the floor of the top story is more than 22 m above grade, or beginning at around nine stories.\u003Csup>105 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The often dramatically lower ratios of units to elevators (see section 2.1.3, “Multifamily elevator ratios”) in European apartment buildings means that residents are much less likely to encounter other people outside of their household in an elevator, making it easier and less awkward to enter and exit an elevator without turning. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.2 Asia and Oceania\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Due to linguistic limitations, our research into cabin size requirements in Asia and Oceania was not as extensive as in Europe. However, we were able to identify regulations in South Korea, Singapore, and Australia. All of them follow the same general trend of offering some accommodation of wheelchair turning radii and\u002For stretchers, but rarely both, and not to the same standard as in North America. In the Asian countries whose rules we were able to identify, wheelchair elevators are slightly roomier than they are in Europe, but there is never any requirement to accommodate a stretcher in a residential building. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In Singapore, wheelchair elevators are a bit larger than their European equivalent, at 1.2 m × 1.4 m (10 cm wider than the European type 2 standard), while so-called “fire lifts,” at 1.5 m × 1.7 m, are also slightly larger than their type 3 European stretcher equivalent, but with more square dimensions. Both are 25 percent smaller by floor area than their American equivalents, and the fire lift requirement does not kick in until a residential building exceeds 40 stories.\u003Csup>106 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In South Korea, the government strongly encourages the installation of elevators that can accommodate a wheelchair with a turning radius through planning policy, though with somewhat less space than in U.S. elevators. Developers are allowed to deduct the floor area of the elevator shaft from their total allowed building area only if the elevator car has 1.35 m × 1.6 m dimensions. While this is intended to produce enough room for a wheelchair user to turn 180 degrees, the interior area of the cabin is 21 percent smaller than the minimum size of a wheelchair elevator in the United States. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There is no requirement or incentive in South Korea to provide a larger cabin for fully extended stretchers. In the absence of this stretcher accommodation, there has been some research by emergency medicine doctors and others to develop a way to perform mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation on patients experiencing cardiac arrest being transported on a reducible stretcher that can be shortened to 1.2 m in order to fit into smaller elevators.\u003Csup>107\u003C\u002Fsup> In Japan, one person said that when he was taken to the hospital for a back injury sustained in his apartment, the apartment building’s stretcher was tilted upwards to fit in a small multifamily elevator. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Australia’s building code takes a hybrid approach to elevator cabin sizes, with European-style requirements up to about five stories, and then a more American approach above that height. Up to about five stories (defined as an effective height of up to 12 m, measured from the bottom to the top floor), the minimum elevator cabin size is 1.1 m × 1.4 m, just like a type 2 wheelchair elevator in Europe. Above this height, at least one elevator must have dimensions of at least 1.4 m × 1.6 m to accommodate wheelchairs with a turning radius, in line with what is required in South Korea, and at least one fitting a stretcher that’s 2 m deep.\u003Csup>108\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.3 United States\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">North America, and in particular New York City, historically had much larger elevator cabins than were typical in Europe. The reasons have not been researched in any depth, but among the possibilities are America’s greater economic wealth, less restricted space within American buildings (regulations historically allowed buildings in U.S. to cover much more of their lot than in Europe), America’s historically taller buildings (by 1914, the average elevator in New York City had 10 landings), the greater adoption of elevators in the U.S. at a time when elevators still required operators, or the complex interplay of means of egress rules that still bias architects towards larger floor areas served by each elevator landing.\u003Csup>109\u003C\u002Fsup> Whatever the reasons, this historical market trend has now been written into code. Before there were any regulations driving elevator size in, for example, New York City, cars generally were of a size that translated to a 1,800-lb. carrying capacity, larger than the code minimum size today for most new buildings in Europe. Over the years, a number of regulations aimed at accommodating different uses have incrementally increased cabin sizes, each one fairly de minimis, but with the long-term effect of doubling cabin sizes in even fairly small buildings. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This means that the United States and Canada now require the largest elevator cars in the world. Whereas jurisdictions in Europe and Asia tend to require or encourage elevator cabins that can accommodate at most either a wheelchair turning radius or a stretcher, the United States and Canada typically require both in almost any situation where an elevator is provided, including in situations where there is no requirement to provide an elevator at all – a perverse disincentive that some developers respond to by simply building walk-ups (see section 2.1.1, “Walk-ups and elevator buildings”). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The requirements to accommodate wheelchair turning radii and stretchers are found, at least in the United States, in separate parts of the building code, and they affect size in different ways, and will be treated separately in this section. But the requirements join together to result in manufacturers designing cars with up to 3,500-lb. capacities to meet minimum requirements for most mid-rise residential buildings, or slightly over 2.5 times as much weight and a bit over twice as much interior floor space as the standard 630-kg European type 2 car with a 1.1 m × 1.4 m cabin. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Because elevator car dimensional requirements in the United States are much more complex than in Europe, there is greater variation in how manufacturers meet code requirements, leading to less flexibility to change manufacturers once a plan is drawn, and less competition within the sector. The difference in shaft depth required by Kone’s code minimum model in a mid-rise building and Otis’s, for example, is over a foot, whereas in Switzerland it’s only a few inches of difference in depth and the specified widths are exactly the same.\u003Csup>110\u003C\u002Fsup> Despite the National Elevator Industry, Inc.’s attempts to standardize hoistway dimensions, the complicated requirements, ambiguity in the code, and local jurisdictions’ different implementations leave the United States in a situation where dimensional standardization – and along with it, the competitive advantages to consumers of being able to easily swap out one manufacturer for another at any point in the development process – is not possible.\u003Csup>111\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.3.1 Wheelchair turning radius requirement \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The ICC’s A117.1 standard, titled “Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities,” governs the interior area of elevators in multifamily buildings in the United States.\u003Csup>112\u003C\u002Fsup> It provides a number of options for elevators in new buildings, which allow for a wheelchair user to enter and then turn to push buttons that are assumed to be located on the same wall of the car as the door. In practice, the designs allow a user to enter facing more or less forward and then exit facing forward as well, assuming that the elevator is not too crowded with other riders to make the turn (the details of what constitutes a proper turning radius are more complicated and have grown more demanding in recent years than what the standard requires, but we will refer to what is required by A117.1 as a turning radius in this report). This differs from European and other standards, where elevator cars accommodate wheelchairs, but do not allow as much room to turn. To meet American interior dimensional requirements, the Big Four manufacturers usually design cars with capacities of 2,500 lbs. for cars with centered doors, or 2,000 to 2,100 lbs. (roughly 900 to 950 kg) for off-center, or side-opening, doors. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">An analysis of New York City Department of Buildings records shows that this wheelchair turning radius requirement only marginally increased the size of elevator cabins after it was added to the A117.1 standard in 1980.\u003Csup>113\u003C\u002Fsup> Elevators built in the decades after World War II but before the requirement was introduced had capacities of 1,800 to 2,000 lbs., closer to the A117.1 requirement than to the size of 320-kg (700-lb.) cars common in Europe around this time. Dimensions in New York City before accessibility laws were passed were dictated by a number of concerns – one article in the city’s real estate trade press in 1914 recommended making cabs wider than they are deep in commercial loft buildings, for example, to facilitate loading and unloading – but wheelchair accessibility was not among them.\u003Csup>114\u003C\u002Fsup> Buildings in post-war America almost always had a few steps between the sidewalk and the elevator, for example, rendering them unusable by wheelchair users anyway. Given the common historical pattern of the market shaping elevator regulations as often as the reverse, it raises the question of whether the wheelchair turning radius was a carefully considered requirement arrived at by weighing the benefits of roomier cabins for wheelchair users against the costs of making elevators more difficult to provide, or whether the standard’s writers were simply roughly codifying existing market practice with a small boost to, in their minds, enhance accessibility. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For older cars that already exist in American buildings, today’s A117.1 cabin size standard is looser, with a minimum requirement of 36 in. × 54 in. (0.915 m × 1.37 m) – smaller than the European type 2 standard for new buildings, and more in line with Italy’s requirement.\u003Csup>115\u003C\u002Fsup> Furthermore, in new buildings in the United States, there is a smaller style of elevator called a limited-use\u002Flimited-application (or LULA) elevator. The LULA elevator is very limited in height and speed and is typically found in commercial buildings. It is, designed for accessibility rather than general access, andhas an car interior size requirement of, in effect, 1.065 m × 1.37 m – also slightly smaller than a European type 2 car.\u003Csup>116 \u003C\u002Fsup>Both of these options recognize that the European type 2 car meets a certain minimum standard for accessibility, allowing a wheelchair user plus at least one ambulatory rider to move between floors with room to maneuver, even if they do not have the range of motion that they would in a larger car. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Interviews with wheelchair users suggest that design and practice with regards to accessibility often but do not always overlap. Larger elevator cars – even ones much larger than necessary to meet the A117.1 wheelchair standard – usually do not allow a wheelchair user to both enter and leave face-forward if there are more than one or two other riders in the cab, which is common in high-rise buildings. On the other hand, some cars that would not meet A117.1’s wheelchair standard for new construction (including elevators sized to the European wheelchair standard) can nevertheless allow a manual wheelchair user in particular to turn.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.3.2 Stretcher requirement \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The 2,000- to 2,500-lb. cars now required in the United States to accommodate wheelchair users are roughly as large as the 1,000-kg type 3 cars in Europe built to accommodate stretchers, but due to the shape of the cabin – more square than a narrow and deep European car – typically do not accommodate a stretcher of the size dictated by code in a fully reclined position. The modern American code requirements to accommodate a stretcher in buildings of at least four (or, in some cases, three) stories with elevators were inherited from the old Uniform Building Code, where the requirement was added in the 1988 edition.\u003Csup>117\u003C\u002Fsup> At the time, the code required accommodation of a stretcher measuring 24 in. × 76 in., or 6 ft., 4 in. in depth, which was then copied into the first edition, in 2000, of the International Building Code.\u003Csup>118\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the 2006 edition of the IBC, the length of the stretcher to be accommodated was raised to 84 in., or 7 ft. (2.13 m). The code change was proposed by a member of the Glendale Fire Department, in Arizona, where there are still very few apartment buildings with elevators. The firefighter who proposed it said that he was concerned that a sports arena being constructed would have elevators that would not accommodate his local emergency responders’ stretchers extended into a fully flat position. The cost impact was stated simply as “None.” “Just think about if the patient was you,” the proponent concluded in his reason statement.\u003Csup>119\u003C\u002Fsup> There was some debate and tweaking of the language that year and in a subsequent version at the urging of the elevator industry, but the proposal ultimately survived in a modified form, incrementally increasing the capacity of multifamily elevators to today’s typical 3,500 lbs.\u003Csup>120\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Canadian building codes have similar but slightly less exacting requirements compared to U.S. codes. They require accommodation of a stretcher measuring 0.61 m × 2.01 m (24 in. × 79 in.).\u003Csup>121\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The stretcher requirement has at times led to confusion among authorities having jurisdiction, because the exact dimensions of the elevator cabin that can accommodate a stretcher are not explicitly stated in the code. In Europe, building codes are generally written to require 1.1 m × 2.1 m cabins where stretchers are meant to be accommodated, but America’s IBC merely states that elevators cabins “shall be of such a size and arrangement to accommodate an ambulance stretcher 24 inches by 84 inches (610 mm by 2134 mm) with not less than 5-inch (127 mm) radius corners, in the horizontal, open position.”\u003Csup>122\u003C\u002Fsup> Since the wheelchair turning requirement requires more square cabs, while stretchers are long, the most space-efficient way to accommodate stretchers is usually diagonally, sometimes requiring multi-part maneuvers, as noted in example drawings in the IBC commentary.\u003Csup>123\u003C\u002Fsup> Elevator industry professionals have described frustrating conversations with fire officials over whether stretchers will fit inside of cars, with one person describing an incident involving a mock-up of a stretcher using a refrigerator box to try to convince an official that a cabin meets code. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The situation in California is further complicated by an additional provision explicitly requiring that the cab must accommodate two emergency responders in addition to the stretcher, along with an exception in the 2016 version – removed in later versions – allowing slightly smaller cabs if it can be demonstrated that they will accommodate the typical stretcher in use in the jurisdiction.\u003Csup>124\u003C\u002Fsup> This has led the Los Angeles Fire Department to issue a series of ever-changing and poorly versioned memoranda listing the elevators that it will accept, along with a set of procedures for manufacturers to submit, in writing, to the department to prove compliance with the rules of the code, plus an additional accommodation of bariatric extenders (that is, extension wings for obese patients) that is not written in any code.\u003Csup>125\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While there are many ambulance stretchers in the United States that fully recline to a length greater than the old 76-in. standard, and extra equipment can add additional length, paramedics very often encounter situations without elevators that can accommodate 84-in. stretchers and have to be prepared for them in spite of the latest codes. New York City, for example, didn’t adopt the longer 84-in. requirement until 2014.\u003Csup>126\u003C\u002Fsup> Larger elevator standards only apply to buildings built after the adoption of the new code, and elevators are very rarely enlarged after construction. As a result, more than two-thirds of passenger elevators in New York City, for example, have capacities under 3,000 lbs., making them unlikely to fit 84-in. stretchers.\u003Csup>127\u003C\u002Fsup> And Florida never adopted the new longer stretcher standard at all, with the latest edition of its building code only requiring elevators to fit a 76-in. stretcher.\u003Csup>128\u003C\u002Fsup> This allows elevator manufacturers to sell slightly smaller cars in Florida, with Schindler, for example, selling a 2,500-lb. model with a single side opening that meets the stretcher requirement, rather than its 3,000-lb. stretcher model in the rest of the United States.\u003Csup>129\u003C\u002Fsup> And even when an elevator that meets the largest size requirements is provided, only one serving each floor needs to meet this standard. In a bank of more than one elevator, the stretcher-sized cab can be specifically called using a key to enable the car’s emergency operation mode, but these keys are not always accessible when needed, so paramedics can sometimes be stuck taking the first elevator that arrives. As a result, ambulance stretchers can be manipulated and tilted in various ways to fit into tighter spaces. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While there are a number of medical emergencies where one would benefit from an elevator car that can accommodate a fully extended gurney, there are no measurable clinical outcomes where North America outperforms Europe or Asia. One of the most common use cases for a larger elevator is an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, where somebody’s heart stops beating and their survival rate is improved by receiving continuous chest compressions, which are difficult to carry out in an elevator that cannot accommodate a supine patient. However, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survival rates are very low, with one meta-analysis finding that only 22 percent of patients survived to hospital admission. North Americans, despite their much larger elevator cars, were even less likely to survive to hospital discharge (7.7 percent) than Europeans (11.7 percent). One-year survival rates were even worse for North Americans – only 4 percent survived, significantly lower than any other region studied.\u003Csup>130\u003C\u002Fsup> The survival rate for cardiac arrest occurring in apartment buildings is likely even lower, since they are less likely to be witnessed by bystanders who can perform resuscitation or defibrillation, a key survival factor.\u003Csup>131\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.4 Cost impact of cabin sizes \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Larger cabin sizes raise costs in a number of different ways: they increase parts and labor requirements, and they require larger shafts, which often displace rentable or saleable building area and cost more money to build. The exact magnitude of these costs is worth quantifying since larger cabins do come with benefits in terms of accessibility, and if the costs are minor, then the larger cabins found in the United States and Canada as compared to Europe might be worth the extra costs. What data is available though suggests that the costs are not minor. Costs rise more slowly than capacity as measured in weight – 3,500-lb. code minimum North American elevator cars do not appear to cost two-and-a-half times as much as the 630-kg cars more typical in Europe if other variables (like labor environments and technical standards) are held constant – but the difference in cost still appears to be substantial. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.4.1 New elevator installation costs \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It is difficult to determine the full effect that elevator size has on cost, because European-sized elevators are not legal in enough situations in North America to be worth producing as a standard product, and North American-sized elevators are never required or built in Europe outside of specialized settings like hospitals and industrial buildings, where other unique characteristics also drive cost and quotes are difficult to obtain. As such, it is not possible to simply request a quote from a manufacturer of a much larger or smaller size and measure the difference in order to arrive at the expected cost savings from moving from North American standards to European ones. However, different sizes are sold on both continents, and while pricing is not very transparent, quotes and standardized price lists can give a hint as to how cabin size affects overall pricing. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Out of concern for the cost of public works and in order to introduce transparency into the market for public procurement, Italy requires regional governments to publish lists of benchmark unit prices for a wide range of construction projects, including elevators.\u003Csup>132\u003C\u002Fsup> When compared to actual quotes received from elevator vendors, these benchmark price lists are accurate. The benchmark price list published in 2023 for Milan contains line items for six-stop MRL elevators of four different capacities, ranging from 400 kg (typically used in existing buildings) to 835 kg (sized for a gurney).\u003Csup>133\u003C\u002Fsup> While this 835-kg car falls well short of the size of the 3,500-lb. (1,588-kg) car often used in the United States and Canada, the progression of prices for the four capacities follows a fairly linear pattern. Extrapolating using a basic linear regression, a six-stop, 3,500-lb. installation would cost around $97,000 in adjusted terms, compared to the listed price of around $54,000 (adjusted) for a 630-kg installation. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the United States, pricing is not as transparent. The public sector does not publish any benchmark prices, and private cost estimation databases like RSMeans offer unrealistic estimates for elevators. However, two quotes were obtained from a Big Four manufacturer for an installation in the same four-story building in Brooklyn: a 2,500-lb. car (sized for a wheelchair with turning radius) was quoted at $158,000, while a 3,500-lb. one (sized for a gurney) was quoted at $168,000. These prices imply a shallower slope for the resulting linear regression, with cost being less responsive to size, on top of a higher fixed price. Extrapolating from only these two data points, a 630-kg version of this four-stop installation would be priced at around $147,000. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Accurately determining the expected savings in cost to developers if 630-kg, European-style elevators were allowed in the United States is not possible from these limited data points, given the limited sample size, as well as the complex interplay of other non-size factors (for example, if the labor market were loosened and global prefabrication and preassembly practices were introduced to the United States, and manufacturers were allowed to import parts certified for the global market rather than buying for the limited North American market, cost might change). However, they do suggest an upper and lower bound on expected cost savings from moving from a 3,500-lb. effective code minimum to a 630-kg one for a mid-rise installation: 13 percent to 44 percent. Anecdotally, interviews with employees at elevator firms in the United States cited expected cost savings estimates somewhere in the middle of these two figures. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.4.2 Elevator hoistway costs \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator manufacturers quote a fixed price for installations, but the hoistway (or shaft) that the elevator sits in also has a substantial cost. Comparing the direct costs to build hoistways in North America and Europe is beyond the scope of this report due to deeper-rooted differences in construction cultures and materials, but one cost that is easier to tabulate and perhaps more significant is the forgone value of the space that larger North American shafts consume. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In most zoning codes and land use regimes, developers face a direct tradeoff between space occupied by elevators and space that can otherwise be rented or sold. Of six major U.S. jurisdictions reviewed (New York City; Los Angeles; Portland, OR; Philadelphia; Arlington County, VA; and Jersey City, NJ), all either require developers to count space occupied by elevators towards their total allowed floor area, or regulate building size in such a way that only accounts for a building’s outer walls.\u003Csup>134\u003C\u002Fsup> This means that every square foot occupied by an elevator shaft and the elevator inside of it comes at the opportunity cost of whatever the prevailing price for land is, as measured per buildable square foot. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Based on the architectural planning specifications provided by Otis, Schindler, and Kone for their typical code minimum models on each continent, assuming a constant 8-inch thickness for hoistway walls, elevator shafts take up almost twice as much space in North America (around 76 sq. ft.) as in Europe (41 sq. ft.). The cost impact is dramatic: for a six-story building, if the price of land is $150 per buildable square foot (typical for urban land in large coastal cities), the opportunity cost of an elevator shaft built to European specifications is $37,000, as opposed to $69,000 in North America. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. Labor\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Most of the cost of modern elevators lies in the human labor needed to assemble, test, maintain, repair, and modernize the devices. While labor is central to the elevator industry, the issues around it – prefabrication and preassembly vs. on-site construction, union vs. non-union, International Union of Elevator Constructors vs. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, local workers vs. foreign workers, in-house vs. subcontracted – are sensitive, and open discussions can be taboo. Labor is the elephant in the room of the elevator industry – public policy disputes are couched in terms of safety, and the main trade publication for the vertical transportation field, Elevator World, rarely mentions labor directly. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In both North America and Europe, the broad outlines of training elevator workers are similar. Elevator mechanics have traditionally learned the trade on the job, in teams of two, with an experienced mechanic accompanied by a less seasoned helper. On both continents, education is becoming more formalized and licensure is becoming stricter, with more classroom training and book study and formal accreditation at the end of the process. However the bulk of knowledge is still passed down through the apprenticeship system, from the trained mechanic to the novice helper, with most learning still taking place inside the elevator shaft. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There are, however, broad differences in elevator industry labor between North America and Europe. North American labor costs are much higher than those in Europe, and labor availability is tighter. Europe has an established system of state-sponsored technical education that is well suited to supplying the construction industry with workers, while the United States and Canada are nations of desk workers where the skilled trades are a less common career path. Particularly in new installations, Europe has far more foreign workers in the sector and efficiencies in production, while North America has much stronger organized labor. The International Union of Elevator Constructors is one of the most powerful construction unions in North America, and it resists trends like preassembly and prefabrication, creating more work and causing further tightening in the labor market. Labor relations in the European elevator field, on the other hand, are more subject to market forces. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.1 Europe\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In Europe, jobs within the elevator industry are much like jobs in any other industry, with open recruitment by companies, a mobile workforce, and a technology-led push to substitute capital for labor, shifting work from the construction site to the factory and automating tasks. Employers and manufacturers complain of persistent shortages of willing and able workers, but compared to their counterparts in North America, they have wider access to domestic workers with a technical educational background, and a growing number of foreign workers. The European single market’s “four freedoms” – free movement across national borders for goods, capital, services, and people – gives the industry, especially in Western Europe, access to foreign workers, ranging from immigrants who move permanently to higher-income countries to work and live, to more temporary arrangements like subcontractors who bus workers in to Western Europe from lower-wage countries in Eastern Europe to install elevators for a few weeks as demand permits and then return home. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.1.1 Training\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Entry into the European elevator trade is much like entry into any other technical field. Young people typically graduate from high school, often from a technical track, and then find a job listing looking for workers to be trained as elevator technicians. Some people have experience in other fields before getting into elevators (for example, in the automotive industry), but most technicians interviewed entered it soon after their highest level of formal education. Job openings are listed by firms themselves on online platforms – by one of the Big Four elevator manufacturers, for example, or by smaller firms with a regional focus or a specific niche – and there are few barriers to entering the trade. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Before any elevator-specific education or work experience, many people in Europe who eventually become elevator mechanics start with a state-sponsored vocational secondary education in their teenage years. Roughly half of upper secondary students in Europe (the equivalent of high schoolers in the United States) are enrolled in vocational schools, with especially high numbers in Central Europe.\u003Csup>135\u003C\u002Fsup> These schools often follow a dual education model, combining general classroom learning with career-specific training apprenticeships. Vocational schools and apprenticeships are technical in nature, often with the goal of training workers for the industrial sector (which includes both manufacturing and construction), home to a quarter of Europe’s jobs.\u003Csup>136\u003C\u002Fsup> The elevator industry is a small slice of the industrial sector, so apprenticeships and secondary schools focused exclusively on elevators are rare, but related education and training in electronics or mechanics is common, giving future workers a good base of knowledge funded by the government. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevator-specific training has traditionally taken place on the job, with two-person teams of an experienced technician and a younger and lower-paid apprentice. Training has become more formalized in recent years, as elevators become more advanced electronic devices and the demands of the job have grown. The labor shortage in Western Europe has become especially acute, forcing companies to become much more proactive in recruitment.\u003Csup>137\u003C\u002Fsup> In Germany, elevator companies have banded together to offer common courses of varying lengths for new employees and those looking to improve their skills.\u003Csup>138\u003C\u002Fsup> In Switzerland, Schindler runs “Liftcamps” that recruit workers from other technically oriented industries, like auto or farm equipment mechanics, and train a few hundred technicians each year. Poland – the construction powerhouse of Europe, which has a rapidly expanding economy and a high rate of homebuilding, but which is also a large source of labor across the continent – offers an interesting example of state-supported technical education in the elevator industry. The end of communism and the restructuring and privatization of state-owned enterprises led to the dissolution of their associated vocational training programs, and changes to the state’s technical and vocational school system in 1999 further eroded educational offerings.\u003Cbr>Poland – the construction powerhouse of Europe, which has a rapidly expanding economy and a high rate of homebuilding, but which is also a large source of labor across the continent – offers an interesting example of state-supported technical education in the elevator industry. The end of communism and the restructuring and privatization of state-owned enterprises led to the dissolution of their associated vocational training programs, and changes to the state’s technical and vocational school system in 1999 further eroded educational offerings. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The accession of Poland into the European Union in 2004 accelerated the country’s brain drain, and construction workers were particularly likely to leave the country for higher wages and opportunities in Western Europe. This skilled labor crisis forced the elevator industry and government to improve technical education within the country to fill the growing demand for skilled workers across trades, including the elevator sector.\u003Csup>139 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Polish Association of Lift Manufacturers (PALM) was founded in 2003, and began running its own training programs the next year. Starting in the 2010s, the association began working with the Polish government to integrate training for the elevator industry into state-supported secondary education. After leaving eighth grade, students in Poland, as in some other countries in Europe, are given the option to continue into a few separate tracks, for the equivalent of American high school. One of those tracks is a so-called technikum – a five-year technical school for students who would like to pursue a skilled, technical career, which may or may not involve university education afterwards. These involve a specialization in anything from hairdressing to computer programming, with construction trades being popular choices. PALM, with a small subsidy from the European Union, worked with the Polish ministries of economy and national education to develop a curriculum for a specialization in lifting equipment (including elevators), which is now available at over a dozen technical secondary schools across Poland. Technical school students study general subjects like English, Polish, history, and sciences, and also learn the specifics of their specialization. Starting in the second year, those pursuing a lifting equipment specialization begin on-site apprenticeships with firms for one day a week, which grows in later years. By the time students graduate after the fifth year (at around age 19), they have earned a basic electrical equipment certificate and more specific state certification in elevator maintenance, and can work in the elevator industry without any further formal training needed. In addition to technical secondary schools, elevator firms themselves offer in-house training, and the government’s Office of Technical Inspection also offers its own more advanced classes in elevator subspecialties.\u003Csup>140\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.1.2 Subcontracting and migrant labor \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Polish government and industry’s training efforts were linked to an increasingly mobile workforce across Europe, which had strong effects on the market for new elevator installations and modernizations of older devices. New installations and many modernizations are now handled by subcontractors for the major manufacturers, with these subcontractors working on projects in Western Europe often hiring temporary workers from lower-wage countries in Eastern Europe. These subsectors have therefore been cleaved off from the larger, more profitable, and more stable repair and maintenance fields, where work is still performed overwhelmingly by locals. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevators in Europe were historically installed directly by the device manufacturers and their workers. In Finland around 2010, for example, only around 5 percent of installations were subcontracted out.\u003Csup>141\u003C\u002Fsup> A 2000 report commissioned by IG Metall, a German labor union that is the country’s largest and that represents many elevator industry workers, downplayed the significance of outsourcing in various German elevator subsectors.\u003Csup>142\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This changed with the accession into the European Union of lower-income countries on the periphery of Europe beginning in 2004 with Poland, the Baltics, and a number of formerly communist countries in central Europe, continuing in 2007 with Romania and Bulgaria, and ending in 2013 with Croatia. A core precept of the European Union is the creation of a single market, without trade barriers between member states. Foreigners, whether permanent immigrants or temporary workers, are held to the same legal labor standards as locals – minimum wages, paid holidays, and working conditions still have to be respected – but firms in higher-income countries in Western and Northern Europe are free to hire workers from lower-income countries in Eastern and Southern Europe on either a temporary or permanent basis.\u003Csup>143\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Labor was suddenly able to move freely from Bulgaria to Portugal and everywhere in between. Services were able to be traded within the same area. And rules on the goods installed – the elevators themselves – were also harmonized (discussed in Section 5.2, “EN 81\u002FISO 8100: Europe’s global standard”), enabling a single market for elevator installations across most of Europe. The free movement of labor even extends now beyond the limits of the European Union, with high-income Switzerland and Norway participating through other agreements, and other mechanisms for citizens of lower-income countries like Moldova and Belarus to live and work in at least some E.U. member states.\u003Csup>144\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Seven years after its 2000 publication, IG Metall produced a follow-up report on the elevator industry that detailed dramatic changes in the German market for new elevator installations. It put the rate of outsourcing of new installations in Germany – that is, sales of devices by companies like Schindler or Otis that are ultimately installed by different entities – at 70 to 80 percent. Modernizations, which involve replacing significant components of existing elevators and which tend to be performed decades after the initial installation, were less likely to be outsourced, but it still put the rate at between 40 and 50 percent. The report fingered Eastern European subcontractors as a major culprit in the decline of direct installation work at the Big Four, but also noted the trend towards farming out work to affiliated or subsidiary companies, whose workers are either unrepresented by unions or are represented by different unions.\u003Csup>145\u003C\u002Fsup> By 2015, another IG Metall report found the outsourcing trends had held, with the Big Four happy to let small- and mid-sized enterprises have the new installation business for standard elevators, since the profits had been competed away to almost nothing.\u003Csup>146\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At Kone, the rate of outsourcing by 2020 reached 65 percent for its central and northern European division, and 68 percent for its southern and eastern European, African, and Middle Eastern division. And Europe was actually a laggard in outsourcing of new installations compared to Asia, where 78 percent of work was outsourced for its Asia Pacific business area, and 100 percent outsourced in Greater China. The Finnish report author noted that outsourcing allows companies to ramp up – and then down – installation activity without needing to scale their internal workforce accordingly, which would otherwise have trouble fitting both stable employment and reliability of service to the boom\u002Fbust cycle of real estate development.\u003Csup>147\u003C\u002Fsup> New installations are also more amenable to outsourcing to foreign workers given the more uniform nature of the work, requiring more physical effort and less technical knowledge than service and maintenance (“the world of new installations belongs to the young,” as one Spanish manager put it). As a result, occupational licensing rules in Europe tend not to require workers involved in the installation process to have a specific license – unlike repairs and maintenance, where licenses are required – with adjustments and commissioning taken over at the end of the installation process by local workers, internal to the manufacturer, before the elevators are finally released to building owners for use. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the mid-2000s, when lower-income Eastern European countries were brought into the European Union and therefore the Western European elevator workforce, fear of so-called “social dumping,” or the replacement of local workers with foreign ones who are paid a lower wage, was rampant in Western European politics. Europe’s Bolkestein directive was drafted in 2004 to establish a single market for services across member states, and immediately the idea of the “Polish plumber,” moving west to undercut wages in France, was popularized by Euroskeptic politicians. But within a short period of time, Western Europe adjusted to the newcomers, with wages rising rapidly in new European Union member states like Poland and Romania, leveling the playing field somewhat for local workers in more developed Western European economies. Today, it’s common to find workers from even farther east in Poland’s new installation elevator subsector, for example from Ukraine and Belarus, playing the part that Poles did in Western Europe in the 2000s. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One exception to the trend of a single European labor market in elevator installation is Norway, where the Heismontørenes Fagforening, or Elevator Constructors’ Union, has resisted subcontracting trends. Its collective bargaining agreement does not allow the subcontracting of work out to workers, foreign or domestic, not covered by the agreement, and sets a wage that is high by European standards – 370.17 NOK per hour ($34.87 using a basic currency conversion, or $43.97 using a purchasing power parity adjustment) as a base for fully trained mechanics with at least one year of experience, with increases available for overtime, seniority, work on ships, work that is especially dirty, etc.\u003Csup>148\u003C\u002Fsup> The union’s position on subcontracting is supported by Norwegian law, which imposes certain educational and apprenticeship requirements on elevator installers that would make it difficult for foreign temporary workers to enter the market regardless of the union contract, in contrast to the lack of occupational licensing requirements elsewhere in Europe for installers. The Heismontørenes Fagforening does not, however, fight against preassembly and prefabrication in new elevator installations the way that the dominant American elevator constructors’ union does (see the “Preassembly and prefabrication” subsection in 4.2.2), preferring to focus on maintenance, repair, and other work. It also does not control entry into the field – would-be elevator workers in Norway still applying directly to apprenticeships within companies after completing a two-year upper secondary school course in electrical engineering.\u003Csup>149\u003C\u002Fsup> Norway’s union (which may be the only union in Europe representing elevator mechanics organized along craft, rather than industrial, lines) has also succeeded in organizing employees at the Spanish firm Orona – a company that has traditionally resisted unionization efforts in Europe more strenuously than the Big Four manufacturers – working in Norway.\u003Csup>150\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.1.3 Case study: France \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">France offers an interesting case study of a country with what was once a fairly backwards elevator industry, which made a concerted and successful effort to bring it up to more modern standards, aided on the labor side by both greater access to foreign workers and improved national education. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Historically, France has been a nation of walk-up apartment buildings and single-family houses. The wholesale demolition and reconstruction of Paris planned by Georges-Eugène Haussmann happened in the 19th century, before the widespread availability of elevators in apartment buildings. Buildings on boulevards rose to seven or even eight stories accessed only by stairs. The country’s elevator stock – already smaller than Spain’s or Italy’s, and according to the City of Paris the oldest in Europe – was in a sorry state in 2002, when a child in Strasbourg fell to his death down an elevator shaft after the doors opened for an elevator that hadn’t arrived.\u003Csup>151\u003C\u002Fsup> A representative from Kone told investigators in Paris in 2010 that France’s elevator stock, particularly in social housing, was in bad shape compared to the rest of the world, and that “Kone has a list of [social housing] landlords whose requests for offers it no longer responds to, which is added to regularly.”\u003Csup>152 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A cabinet minister named Gilles de Robien took up the cause of modernizing France’s elevator fleet, introducing the first of a series of bills that would revolutionize France’s elevator safety rules by requiring modernizations of older elevators and instituting a system of regular independent inspections.\u003Csup>153\u003C\u002Fsup> Because the new laws required more work to be done on the nation’s elevators, it also foresaw the need for a larger workforce, with provisions for state-sponsored education to supplement traditional apprenticeships in an industry that was already struggling with labor shortages.\u003Csup>154\u003C\u002Fsup> Offerings now include programs extending for one or two years after the typical high school graduation, combining classroom learning with on-the-job training.\u003Csup>155\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond encouraging more French students to study to become elevator mechanics, new immigration pathways have also fed the industry’s growing need for labor. The accession of Eastern European countries into the European Union led almost immediately to workers from the new member countries entering the French elevator industry. Despite some controversy and opposition from unions, firms using temporary migrant labor from Eastern Europe now compete for subcontracts for new installations, leaving resident French workers to concentrate on more technically skilled work like service, repairs, and modernizations.\u003Csup>156\u003C\u002Fsup> Elevator technicians were also added to a list of occupations where labor is in short supply, for which employers can hire workers from outside of member countries and affiliates of the European Union, with proposals now to also offer legalization of undocumented immigrants working in the field.\u003Csup>157 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The elevator industry in France has made strides in the two decades since the passage of Robien’s laws. The number of elevator deaths fell gradually from eight in 2001, seven in 2002, and six in 2003 to just one in total between 2009 and 2013.\u003Csup>158 \u003C\u002Fsup>Bolstered by new planning laws forcing municipalities to accept more infill development, France has gone from being a country that mostly built single-family homes in the 2000s to one that now builds mostly multifamily dwellings, with annual new elevator installations up around 20 percent from the early 2000s.\u003Csup>159\u003C\u002Fsup> Finally, French accessibility law was strengthened a few years ago, with elevators now required in four-story apartment buildings, intended to improve accessibility in new social housing in particular (covered in 2.1.1, “Walk-ups and elevator buildings”). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.2 United States\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The United States (along with Canada in many ways, although due to a lack of detailed information this section will focus on the U.S. alone) has a significantly tighter labor market for elevator workers than Europe. The United States has a weaker system of technical education than most countries in Europe, and is more of a nation of office workers who sit at desks than people who work with their hands, contributing to a shortage of young people with the skills and inclination to enter the trade. The United States is, like many other wealthy countries, heavily reliant on immigrants in the construction industry generally, which poses a problem for the American elevator sector since it has one of the lowest shares of foreign-born workers of any trade.\u003Csup>160\u003C\u002Fsup> It is almost completely closed to undocumented immigrants due to licensure and union rules, and the country lacks essentially any legal immigration pathway for construction workers. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Contrary to stereotypes about organized labor in the United States as compared to Europe, the elevator sector in the U.S. is heavily unionized, and organized labor exerts much greater power over the process of installing and maintaining elevators. The binational International Union of Elevator Constructors (IUEC) represents most workers in the field in the United States and Canada. The union handles recruitment into the industry, makes a strong and successful effort to limit entry into the field, and limits the ability of firms to use new technology and factory production to streamline the installation and maintenance of elevators in North America. The result is higher compensation, more work for citizens and little opportunity for immigrants, and less efficient work overall, contributing to high final costs. The labor shortage is, paradoxically, somewhat of a self-reinforcing mechanism, strengthening the hand of the IUEC at the bargaining table to create more work through prohibitions on efficiencies in the installation process in particular. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.2.1 Training\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the United States, state-supported technical education is far weaker than in Europe. Training for workers in the elevator sector has little to no state support at almost any level, and takes place almost entirely within the confines of private companies. Training and entry into the industry is mostly mediated through the International Union of Elevator Constructors, the craft union that represents most workers in elevator construction, maintenance, repairs, and modernization in the United States and Canada. Like other craft unions, the IUEC uses apprenticeships to restrict entry into the field, as a way to maintain worker bargaining power over employers, supporting high wages, strong benefits, and protections against technological innovation and efficiencies that might threaten jobs.\u003Csup>161\u003C\u002Fsup> Securing a union apprenticeship in the elevator industry can be a difficult task often requiring knowledge that is not widely available, and training can begin up to a decade later than in Europe, with the high costs being almost entirely borne by private industry. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The vast majority of the North American elevator companies – including Otis, Kone, Schindler, TK Elevator, Mitsubishi Electric, Fujitec, and many of the smaller regional firms – are signatories to a master labor agreement with the International Union of Elevator Constructors. The IUEC (or simply, “the union” in this report) is a traditional American craft union, a form of labor organization that evolved from the feudal guild system. It sorts workers along the lines of their craft (otherwise known as their trade) rather than along the lines of an industry or a whole company, as is more common with unions who represent elevator workers in Europe. Only elevator field workers – those who work on new elevator installations and modernizations, or in service, repairs, or maintenance – are members of the union. Sales representatives, factory workers, supervisors, consultants, and other North American elevator industry workers, even within the major firms, are not represented by the IUEC. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>IUEC applications and recruitment \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The International Union of Elevator Constructors limits access to the industry – or at least the majority that it represents – through its apprenticeship program, organized through the joint labor-management National Elevator Industry Educational Program (NEIEP). The process of joining the trade can take many years, and successful attempts often involve already having a career in another union trade (for example, as an electrician or welder) before even beginning the recruitment process. The elevator trade is, as in Europe, quite niche and obscure even within the construction industry, but unlike in Europe, there is almost no effort by the unionized majority of the sector to actively recruit, since demand for jobs at the negotiated wage usually outsrips available opportunities for work. Due to the difficult recruitment process, entry into union firms is nowadays significantly delayed compared to Europe. In this sense, the pathway to a job in the elevator industry in the United States is not unlike that of the medical education process, where American doctors must go through significantly more schooling than their European counterparts, with barriers to entry into the workforce proliferating throughout the industry to drive up costs.\u003Csup>162\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Unlike in Europe, where job seekers apply directly to elevator firms, would-be entrants into the union elevator industry in the United States are all funneled through the common National Elevator Industry Educational Program. Elevator firms control the pace of hiring (which is limited by available work and wages and benefits that must be paid), but the IUEC, through its close relationship with NEIEP, controls access to the hiring pool. Each union “local,” which represents workers within a metropolitan area, holds periodic recruitment drives organized by NEIEP. The recruitment and application process involves filling out an online application, taking an aptitude test, and then standing for an interview. Successful applicants are then ranked, and called up by companies to begin apprenticeships in order of their ranking. Within these general steps, there are a number of unusual and opaque processes, which, especially in locals in older and larger metropolitan areas like New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles, can be difficult to successfully navigate using only the information provided on official websites. In the past, the finer details of successfully joining the union were only available through word-of-mouth, strongly favoring those with family or friends in the trade. Nowadays, the internet and forums like Reddit’s r\u002Felevators “subreddit” have demystified the process for those adept at doing online research, so nepotism is less of a necessity (although large numbers of apprentices do still have family connections to the trade). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The first hurdle involved in the recruitment and application process is understanding the process at all, and timing entry correctly. The very general steps are laid out on the NEIEP’s website, but with critical details omitted about timing and steps that must be taken to maximize success (an out-of-date and inaccurate median wage is also listed).\u003Csup>163\u003C\u002Fsup> Recruitment periods open up once every roughly two years, though they can be canceled or postponed, so it’s not unusual to go longer between recruitments. Open recruitment periods are listed in advance by quarter, with the exact dates appearing a few weeks before opening.\u003Csup>164\u003C\u002Fsup> When recruitment periods are posted on NEIEP’s online calendar, they are listed as starting either at midnight or in the morning on a particular day, and then remaining open for a few weeks. Unmentioned, though, is that applications for competitive locals in major metropolitan areas may only be accepted for a few hours before the application limit is reached and the opportunity is closed for the next few years.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A key reason for the long periods between recruitments and uncertain timelines is that the union contract stipulates that no inexperienced workers may be hired until all union members in the area have work – that is, in the language of the industry, “the bench is cleared.” Companies are free to lay off workers or decline to hire a “benched,” or out-of-work, union member at their discretion, but they may not train new workers or hire experienced union members from outside of the area until all willing union members within the local are employed. If a union member is continuously rejected by a company looking to hire, the matter is eventually sent to arbitration, where a neutral arbitrator decides whether the rejection is warranted (in which case the worker is excluded from the out-of-work list for a time, allowing companies to train new apprentices), or not (in which case the company may lose its right to reject union members for hiring for a period of time).\u003Csup>165 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Following the application and an aptitude and tool test, those who scored above a certain threshold are invited for an interview. The interview includes a series of generic hiring questions (for example, asking applicants to describe a conflict they’ve had in the past and how they resolved it), followed by an open-ended opportunity for applicants to describe things like their past work experiences, qualifications, and motivation for joining the union. The interviewees are judged by one representative from employers and one representative from the union, and the score can reflect how an applicant carried themself, how extensive their work experience is, or simple nepotism and bias. In competitive IUEC locals, it is difficult to score highly unless an applicant has extensive work experience, and it is not uncommon for successful candidates to have already worked their way through a different union’s apprenticeship program (costing the employer in that other trade quite a bit of money paid for training, and an experienced worker). In many cases, given the extensive work experience ranked applicants already have, workers have to take a temporary pay cut to start training, since even though the starting salary is high by global standards (for example, apprentices in Local 25 in Denver started at $23.27 per hour in cash, plus benefits, in 2020, half the rate of journeyman elevator mechanics), the work experience necessary to enter the union can be even higher.\u003Csup>166\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Applicants are then ranked and given a number, starting with 1 for the best applicants. When companies are looking to hire and the bench has been cleared of all trained mechanics, helpers, and apprentices, new, untrained workers are referred to start internships at signatory companies in the order of their ranking. Ranked applicants must follow hiring closely to have an idea of how likely it is that – and when – they’ll be called up before the next recruitment (at which point unhired applicants, regardless of their ranking, are put through the process again if they want to continue to try to pursue a career in the union). Many locals post hiring progress on their websites, and others require applicants to call the union hall or glean information on social media. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Being ranked is no guarantee that an applicant will be called up before the list is restarted a few years later. As an example of how imbalanced supply of and demand for jobs can be, IUEC Local 1 – the largest and one of the most highly paid and desirable locals, covering New York City and its suburbs – accepted 1,500 applications in 2021 for the current recruitment cycle, and was stuck at number 94 for well over a year, with the next recruitment scheduled to accept applications in the fall of 2024.\u003Csup>167\u003C\u002Fsup> The recruitment that started before the current cycle started in 2018. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Once a ranked applicant’s number is up, they are called by the union and told to report to work within a few days. If they do not answer the phone and have not alerted the union hall that they will be temporarily unavailable, they are given a certain amount of time – usually measured in hours – to call back, and if they do not, they are skipped over and in many cases must restart the years-long process. When called, they must quit their job immediately, without giving any notice to their employer, unless they had a good enough relationship with their employer that they were able to notify them months or years in advance that they may abruptly leave at some point, without fear of being replaced before then. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The barriers to joining the union deter many applicants on an individual level, but at a higher level, the barriers are reflective of a wage far above the market-clearing level – that is, the level at which there are about as many qualified applicants as there are available positions – and do not drive it. With wages and benefits above those found in most other construction industry positions, there will always be far more applicants than available jobs. One of the union’s most important roles is to square that circle, which they do with a combination of very high standards (for example, by making prior experience in other trades a de facto requirement), obscuring information about the process, and giving outright preference to those with connections to the union, all of which bias successful hires towards those with pre-existing social connections to union members. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Apprenticeships \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Once an applicant is called to begin work, they start the typically four-year apprenticeship program. The vast majority of training occurs on the job, as a helper working under a full mechanic. NEIEP began the union’s apprenticeship program in 1967, which at the time consisted of around 80 hours of formal training each year, plus 1,800 hours of work experience.\u003Csup>168\u003C\u002Fsup> Over time, the formal training component has expanded to 144 or 150 hours a year, but the majority of an apprentice’s time is still spent on paid jobs.\u003Csup>169\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The union’s apprenticeship program used to be largely informal, but has been formalized over the years, in part to qualify it for licensure regimes. Licensure has raised the stakes for what can be considered a registered apprenticeship, and the union takes an active role in opposing the registration of apprenticeship programs that it does not control. When the Associated Builders and Contractors (a non-union, or “merit shop” trade group) tried to register an elevator apprenticeship program in New York State, both the elevator constructors’ international and local based in Albany wrote to ask the Department of Labor to not approve the program.\u003Csup>170\u003C\u002Fsup> In some cases, non-union apprenticeship programs must be recognized by the state elevator safety review board, where IUEC leadership is well represented.\u003Csup>171\u003C\u002Fsup> Many states have few or no registered apprenticeships that are not affiliated with the union, in contrast to apprenticeships in other trades where non-union programs have more of a presence.\u003Csup>172\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Licensure \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the past, as in many smaller skilled trades, there was no special license required to work on elevators, either as a contractor or as a mechanic doing new instalions, modernizations, or service and repairs. Over the past few decades, however, licensure has spread across the vertical transportation industry, as major manufacturers and the IUEC have lobbied together for laws that regulate licensure in the industry (see “Cooperation between labor and manufacturers” in 4.2.2 for more on this political collaboration). As of mid-2022, about half of all U.S. states required specific licenses to work on elevators.\u003Csup>173 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Licensure can create barriers to movement by elevator mechanics and contractors across state lines, supporting restrictions within the IUEC’s contract on movement between locals.\u003Csup>174\u003C\u002Fsup> Connecticut was an early adopter of licensure, and is viewed by non-signatory firms as a particularly hostile state to work in.\u003Csup>175\u003C\u002Fsup> The state’s elevator board, in the words of its 2018 acting chairman (and IUEC Local 91 business manager), “has always been hesitant to approve [journeyman license] applications for those who have not completed their [on-the-job] training or apprenticeship in Connecticut,” or to approve licenses for contractors who have not worked in the state as journeymen for at least two years.\u003Csup>176\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Connecticut Governor Ned Lamont has introduced bills to, among other things, make it easier for workers in a range of professions licensed in other states to work in Connecticut.\u003Csup>177\u003C\u002Fsup> The governor’s office, in their 2021 push to recognize out-of-state licenses, wrote that licensed workers were 24 percent less likely to move between states than unlicensed workers, despite having comparable rates of intrastate mobility.\u003Csup>178\u003C\u002Fsup> The bill never passed, and attracted the strong opposition of construction unions.\u003Csup>179\u003C\u002Fsup> A representative of IUEC Local 91 wrote that “related instruction in other states may not meet Connecticut’s standards,” while the owner of a small firm whose “family began [e]levator manufacturing and contracting in 1895” wrote in opposition as well.\u003Csup>180\u003C\u002Fsup> A bill did eventually pass recognizing out-of-state licenses in Connecticut, but it did not apply to elevator mechanics, and most other licensed building trades were stripped out. The governor’s office did ultimately find an administrative pathway to license elevator mechanics who completed apprenticeships in other states and who can prove that they completed the on-the-job training and instruction hours equal to what Connecticut now requires for new licensees.\u003Csup>181\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Connecticut is not the only state that has restricted entry of out-of-state mechanics into the market. Massachusetts’s Office of Public Safety and Inspections requires that applicants for an elevator mechanic’s license be currently registered as an apprentice, and have completed “not less than 6,000 on-the-job-training hours over a period of not less than 3 years as an elevator constructor apprentice, under the direct and immediate field supervision of a licensed elevator mechanic in [Massachusetts].”\u003Csup>182\u003C\u002Fsup> Full mechanics from other states must therefore accept a demotion and potentially a pay cut for three years in order to rack up the necessary hours in Massachusetts in order to obtain a license to work in the state. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4.2.2 Labor relations \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The International Union of Elevator Constructors is fairly unique among construction unions in signing a contract with a national bargaining unit composed of all of the major elevator companies. The agreement covers matters like wages (which are different for each union local), benefits (which are standardized across the United States), work conditions, strikes, procedures for hiring and laying off workers, and – importantly – designating what work must be carried out by union members. The latest agreement, in effect from 2022 to 2027, runs 82 pages, but there are many other side agreements that govern relations between the union and employers, and conflict between the two parties over details of the relationship is not uncommon. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Compensation \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">International Union of Elevator Constructors officials are fond of saying that elevators are the best trade in the country, and pay statistics bear that out. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) keeps data on wages for over 50 “construction and extraction occupations,” and what they classify as “elevator and escalator installers and repairers” have the highest median wage of any of them. At $47.60 per hour (or $99,000 per year, though this may not reflect the reality of overtime, and does not includes benefits), the median elevator mechanic makes more than the median “construction and building inspector” ($31 per hour) or the median “first-line supervisor of construction trades and extraction workers” ($35.62 per hour).\u003Csup>183\u003C\u002Fsup> According to BLS data, full-time elevator mechanics make more than twice the median U.S. worker’s hourly wage ($22.26 in May 2021).\u003Csup>184\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Because the vast majority of mechanics belong to the same union, specific wage rates are easy to determine. These are not published openly, but can often be found online through searching, or guessed based on local government prevailing wage publications. These documents back up what Bureau of Labor Statistics data shows. While the industry’s master collective bargaining agreement is the same nationwide, individual union locals have their own wage rates, which generally rise with latitude. The New York City (currently $77.49 per hour for installers, or $60.89 for modernization, service, and repair mechanics) and San Francisco locals ($69.78 per hour for all mechanics in 2020) have some of the highest rates in the United States, and locals in the southeastern U.S. have some of the lowest ($41.90 per hour for mechanics in Charlotte in 2020). Union elevator mechanics receive strong supplemental benefits on top of wages. In 2020, benefits contributions by employers totaled $35.25 per hour, including healthcare, pension, 401(k) contributions, and contributions to union funds.\u003Csup>185\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Labor conflict \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Conflict between workers and employers is an inevitable feature of labor relations, but the amount of acrimony between unionized elevator constructors and their employers (that is, firms like Kone, Schindler, etc.) stands out in the United States construction industry. Most disputes do not make it into the public record, but those that do offer a hint at stormy relationships, and a balance of power within the industry that tends to favor the union, with employers far more often alleging breaches in the collective bargaining agreement than employees. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The early 2000s were a particularly turbulent time for labor relations in the American elevator industry, in some cases related to global technological innovations and the introduction of new machine room less electric traction elevator designs. In a 2006 court filing, a judge noted that IUEC Local 4 (based in Boston, which at the time had around 1,000 members) “had violated no-strike clauses at least six times in the last four years with respect to other employers.”\u003Csup>186\u003C\u002Fsup> The collective bargaining agreement states that employees are not allowed to withhold their work – that is, they are not allowed to strike – as long as the agreement is in effect. Disputes around the finer points of work jurisdiction must be taken to a neutral arbitrator, with employees to follow orders of the employer until a decision has been reached, with compensation paid by the employer to the union if the arbitrator determines that it was the company that was in the wrong.\u003Csup>187\u003C\u002Fsup> The case was typical of such disputes, with an employer (in this case Kone) alleging that the union illegally walked off the job over some issue or another, rather than going through the grievance process outlined in the contract. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Employers have repeatedly alleged in court filings that the union uses illegal strikes during time-sensitive work to pressure the companies into agreeing to terms favorable to the union. In a 2018 case again involving Boston’s Local 4, Fujitec alleged that, after a dispute over whether an hour of overtime pay was required after a short phone call outside of work hours, the union called an illegal work stoppage instead of going through the prescribed grievance process. The supposed work stoppage involved on-call mechanics ignoring text messages from an answering service over malfunctioning equipment, instead waiting for Fujitec supervisors to call the mechanic directly – a hassle and disruption intended to pressure the company into giving in to the union regarding the original overtime dispute. These service calls often involve highly time-sensitive entrapments, where riders are stuck in elevators, and Fujitec provided an example of an entrapment call at 7:29 p.m. on a Wednesday at Tufts University that was delayed by over 15 minutes, causing the Boston Fire Department to be dispatched instead – a less-than-ideal outcome given firefighters’ lack of knowledge about elevators and penchant for damaging the device during rescue attempts, rendering it inoperable without an expensive repair.\u003Csup>188 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The 2018 dispute wasn’t the only time that an elevator manufacturer claimed that a union local ordered its members to refuse to free people stuck in elevators in order to push its position on an issue that, according to the contract, should have gone through the arbitration process. In 2004, Otis alleged that Local 91 orchestrated a sick-out strike by its members in Connecticut over a dispute relating to an old elevator dismantled without paying the union or its members (see the “Other work jurisdiction disputes” subsection of 4.2.2 for more), leading to at least two entrapment calls going unanswered.\u003Csup>189 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond entrapments, companies have alleged that the union uses illegal work stoppages during time-sensitive construction work to pressure them into agreeing to terms that should go through the formal arbitration process. In a 2003 complaint against the IUEC and its Indianapolis Local 34, Otis alleged that the union declined or put off offers over a few years to discuss the design of its new Gen2 machine room less elevator system and some preassembly of parts (discussed in further detail in the “Preassembly and prefabrication” subsection), so that the dispute would have to be resolved when Otis was in a tight spot, with its client housing tenants in temporary facilities and breathing down Otis’s neck to finish the job. “The Unions have clearly timed their objections to arise when Otis, its customers and the public are most vulnerable,” wrote Otis’s attorneys, “when Otis is under time pressure to complete installations without costly and destructive delay that could impact the reputation and marketability of Gen2.”\u003Csup>190\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In 2012, Schindler and the major manufacturers’ national bargaining unit wrote in a court brief that the union had used spurious safety complaints to claim more work for its members. At a hospital parking garage in Buffalo, NY, the general contractor had built scaffolding within the elevator hoistway, which elevator constructors could have used to stand on while they installed equipment. The Local 14 business representative looked at the scaffolding that had already been erected and said, “that’s our work,” and that the local had “several guys on the bench” – that is, without work. Schinder and the national bargaining unit claimed that there was no contract provision promising the work of erecting scaffolding within the shaft to union members. They said that after pointing out that refusing to work on the site unless they were given the work (presumably having the contractor dismantle the scaffolding and then paying Local 14 members to reassemble it) would constitute an illegal work stoppage, the local’s business representative changed tactics and said, “it’s not a [contract] breach if it’s a safety issue.” \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The general contractor then had a certified scaffolding inspector look at the work and certify it as compliant with federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) rules, with the local’s business manager then replying that OSHA certification was “just a piece of paper, and unless we erect it, we can’t guarantee safety.” The business manager soon followed this up with a text reading, “Let me correct myself. Schindler employees” – that is, Local 14 union members – “can deem a situation or area unsafe to work in.” In a later conversation, a Local 14 business representative then returned back to the economic argument, with plaintiff’s attorneys claiming the local’s representative said that “if Schindler continues to ‘give away our work, there won’t be anything for our guys to do.’” Later, the IUEC’s regional director said that the dispute could be resolved if Schindler made payments to the union equal to 12 hours of wages for a two-person crew. The plaintiffs also claim that the elevator mechanic-in-charge on the site explicitly denied that he had any safety concerns, and “admitted it would be an insult [to the tradespeople who installed it] to suggest the platforms were unsafe.”\u003Csup>191\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In other cases, elevator companies have claimed that union locals have put work and job preservation above safety, and have engaged in illegal work stoppages. In 2021, attorneys for Schindler alleged that, after a Local 5 member was fired for using an expired piece of equipment during an elevator installation without checking whether its certification was still valid, the local’s business representative said to a Schindler manager, “I have a feeling that morale is going to drastically decline immediately,” after which 42 union members walked off construction sites around the Philadelphia area, including at least two public elementary schools and a healthcare facility.\u003Csup>192\u003C\u002Fsup> In a 2004 case, Local 4 in Boston insisted that a piece of equipment in a hydraulic elevator that had already been delivered be removed so that union members could disassemble and reassemble the part, presenting what Otis claimed would be “serious and unnecessary physical safety concerns” over creating unnecessary work with heavy equipment (the judge agreed that the dispute was arbitrable, and ordered the union to let its members return to work and resolve the issue in arbitration).\u003Csup>193\u003C\u002Fsup> And in at least two instances, employers have alleged that union locals, in Boston and New York, pulled workers off of a job in retribution for employers suspending or terminating mechanics for engaging in physical fights at work.\u003Csup>194\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In most cases, the work stoppages that made their way into court were settled out of court before a judge could decide on the merits of the case (usually when cases advanced this far, they were decided in favor of employers, and the union was enjoined from illegal strikes). But the legal record suggests that the union often feels that it has enough market power to withhold labor in order to win more work for its members.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Preassembly and prefabrication \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A common and recurring tension between the International Union of Elevator Constructors and major employers is over the issue of preassembly and prefabrication of elevator parts. To a greater extent than anywhere else on earth, the IUEC has succeeded in thwarting the adoption of more productive, faster, and lower-cost methods of elevator construction in the United States, by preserving work for its members and keeping it out of globalized factories. The IUEC has even won the right to undo some work already performed in factories in order to have its members redo it themselves on the job site. From the drive machine and support structure at the top of the shaft to the wiring of electronics to door mechanisms to the construction of cabins themselves, the union has fought and won the right to perform work in most elevator installations in the United States in a uniquely unproductive manner. Labor is the largest cost in any elevator installation, and wages and benefits for IUEC members in the United States are the highest on earth, so this preservation of work for the union has ramifications for developers and, ultimately, anybody who lives or works in buildings with elevators, or who might benefit from one. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Modern construction is always a mix of work performed in factories and work performed on site, and the global trend has been towards performing more work in factories. Factories are climate-controlled facilities with more room for precision machine tools, and they allow for more labor specialization. They are generally more productive than construction sites, and moving work out of the field and into these more controlled settings has been a long-running goal of builders, with examples of off-site construction dating as far back as 6,000 years ago, to the construction of an early Neolithic road in England.\u003Csup>195  \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Moving work into factories is also a major goal of elevator companies. Hoistways are tight spaces that are difficult to work in, their heights present safety challenges, the structures surrounding them are not designed as construction staging sites, and new construction tends to be driven by strong local economies with high wages. The elevator sector is largely a global one, and the Big Four and other major firms prefer to shift as much production as possible to lower-wage countries like China and India in order to bring down prices. In the most extreme cases, they are working towards removing humans from the process of on-site elevator construction entirely, pressing forward with modular shafts and robots drilling holes and setting anchor bolts in demonstration projects in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East.\u003Csup>196\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">North America’s International Union of Elevator Constructors, on the other hand, fiercely resists labor-saving innovations in preassembly and prefabrication. “We can’t afford to sit back and see our trade dumbed down through factory prefabrication and preassembly to a point where all our members will have to do on the job is simply uncrate the elevator, set it, and plug it in,” wrote IUEC’s General President Dana Brigham in 2011. The union is the strongest fighter among the trades against efficiency, with Brigham writing that elevator and escalator companies “look around and ask why, when no other trade is fighting over prefab, they have to allow our members to take sheaves off and put them back on, or to take a complete escalator apart on the job. And, believe me, it’s not an easy task convincing an impartial arbitrator, who may be more familiar with other industries where that kind of thing never occurs, to allow us [to] do it.”\u003Csup>197\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The mention of “tak[ing] sheaves off and put[ting] them back on,” and “tak[ing] a complete escalator apart on the job” is a reference to the most inefficient practices within the American vertical transportation industry, where parts that ship from global factories already assembled are, as the general president wrote, taken apart and then put back together, to make work for the IUEC’s members. An arbitrator summed it up in a 2010 decision over a dispute between Kone and IUEC Local 35: \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the elevator industry, it has become routine that when work is performed in a factory – that is, determined to be within the jurisdiction of workers in the field – the company may, instead of modifying its production process, continue to use the production process that was found to be impermissible, so long as the field workers are permitted to disassemble the work in question and reassemble it in the field. By proceeding in this manner, the companies can manufacture and ship their equipment in today’s global market without having to make changes for certain geographic areas, and the Union can apply its contract rights by continuing to perform bargaining unit work. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The process of disassembling and reassembling parts is unnoticeable in the final product, so witnesses from the union testified to the arbitrator that “[t]hey also signed their names, or initials, on the sheave when it was disassembled to prove that it had actually been disassembled.”\u003Csup>198\u003C\u002Fsup>  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The rules are hammered out in a complex dance of contracts, settlement agreements, arbitration decisions, and occasionally work stoppages and injunctions – few of which are supposed to be visible to the public – and are constantly in flux as technologies change, economic conditions strengthen and deteriorate, and union officials come and go. The practice is somewhat of a dirty secret within the industry, not talked about in \u003Cem>Elevator World\u003C\u002Fem> or any other publicly available source, and the specifics are hard to nail down in interviews, given the level of detail and shifts over time. But occasionally, documents surface, both in and out of the public record, that offer a window into the practice and, sometimes, even its exact costs. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Perhaps the most high-profile example of the practice of undoing completed work to create billable hours for the union comes in the installation of escalators, referenced in the general president’s 2011 letter. While “tak[ing] a complete escalator apart on the job” might be a slight exaggeration, the design of escalators and low tolerance for failure given the public’s close interaction with moving parts means that there is a substantial amount of necessary preassembly, with parts later disassembled and reassembled on site. The biggest source of acrimony between the union and manufacturers involves the balustrade, or the side of the escalator that extends above the steps and supports the handrail, and how much alignment can be done before shipment, and then how much can be undone and then redone on site by IUEC members. IUEC General President Brigham described this “alignment work as the ‘bedrock’ of the industry,” and described the alignment work at installation as a sort of training, ensuring that “the skills of the bargaining unit employees [can] be maintained so that maintenance, repair and modernization can be properly and efficiently accomplished.”\u003Csup>199 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kone’s development of the ECO-3000 escalator in the early 2000s kicked off a grievance by the company against the union regarding disassembly and reassembly, specifically regarding the work aligning the “balustrade brackets,” which hold the balustrade in place and are “important to the safety and operation of the escalator,” in the arbitrator’s words. The escalator was designed, primarily in Germany, to meet “new tighter tolerance safety standards,” redesigning an older model to “[reduce] the likelihood that items and\u002For people might be caught” between the elevator skirt and the step – a common issue with escalators, which are responsible for far more injuries per device than elevators.\u003Csup>200\u003C\u002Fsup> This design involved some alignment in the factory, which the union believed was in contravention of their agreement with the company, and which the union directed its employees to remove and reinstall. The arbitrator ultimately sided with the union, concluding that “[t] he Company’s design and factory alignment may well promote efficiency and safety,” but the contract nevertheless forbade it and the contract terms needed to be changed if the company wanted to continue with its preassembly practices.\u003Csup>201\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Over the next decade and a half, Schindler and the IUEC would also sign a series of agreements related to Schindler’s own escalator models released around the turn of the millennium. As with Kone’s escalators, Schindler’s agreements instructed mechanics to remove or loosen – only to immediately reinstall or retighten – components including balustrade clamps and brackets, comb plates, and skirts.\u003Csup>202 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The settlement agreements and arbitrators’ decisions were often part of a system called “obey and grieve,” where, when faced with disputes, the union carried out the employer’s orders, and then was sometimes compensated if the orders were later determined to violate the contract. Settlement agreements therefore sometimes include dollar amounts that employers must unions in compensation for work that was already done, which the union was later determined to have been entitled to. In 2010, for example, the IUEC and ThyssenKrupp Elevator signed a settlement agreement resolving some (but not all) grievances around various aspects of the firm’s Synergy L – a machine room less elevator model developed and sold in the late 2000s – which allowed for car and counterweight sheaves to be “drilled, installed then shipped from the Factory to the job site, [and then] removed and reinstalled by IUEC members in the field.” TKE was to give the union’s benefit plan $80,343.39 in compensation for lost work associated with 130 Synergy L units that were already (or soon-to-be) sold.\u003Csup>203\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">More recently, the IUEC’s Assistant General President signed an agreement with Schindler’s Director of Labor and Employee Relations – suggesting the importance of these negotiations to both parties – over the FMM\u002F6400, a model sold for modernizations of older election traction elevators in low- and mid-rise buildings. The 2019 agreement concerned a particular point of contention between the union and employers: the drilling of holes. The manufacturers prefer to drill holes in parts before they arrive on site, to take advantage of the cheaper labor and more controlled conditions in factories. For global products, sold primarily in Europe and Asia, the Big Four have free rein to drill as many holes as they’d like in factories, before parts arrive on construction sites. But in the United States, the IUEC keeps as many holes as it can for its members, since they are a crucial source of work hours. The agreement therefore lays out in exacting detail which holes required for the installation of the drive machine support structure can be drilled in the factory (“for alignment,” the agreement specifies, hinting at the superior accuracy and quality control of factory work), which can be drilled in the field, and which can be a mix of both – a smaller “pilot hole” drilled in the factory to ensure proper placement, to be enlarged on site by a union elevator constructor. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The cost of the work was pegged at a total of $180,253.42 for 349 machines with mostly large frames requiring more holes. The agreement came with a list of elevators installed across the country, showing the range of buildings saddled with higher costs – everything from an Air Force base in Louisiana to a low-cost condo complex in Honolulu, along with lots of hotels, offices, and rental and condo buildings across the country. At $132.80 per hour for a team of two in 2017 (a mechanic at full salary and a helper at 55% salary, presumably a composite figure representing average compensation across the country, with both wages and benefits), the work owed to the union comes out to four hours of drilling holes per team of two, or eight total hours of labor.\u003Csup>204 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Schindler signed similar agreements for its new construction 3300 and 5500 MRL models (some of its most popular to this day), as did presumably other manufacturers coming out with new models around that time.\u003Csup>205\u003C\u002Fsup> The issue of drilling holes has become so contentious – and, by implication, lucrative for the union and costly for employers and elevator buyers – that a union leader in a 2011 issue of The Elevator Constructor breathlessly relayed a story about Otis trying to come up with an end-run around the issue of drilling holes by using a different method of connecting pieces entirely: “They had slotted the beams. One more time, you heard it right; the beams had been slotted, not drilled with a hole!”\u003Csup>206\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond holes, wiring comes up as a recurrent topic of dispute between the union and its employers. The International Union of Elevator Constructors prides itself on the diverse skills needed to perform the trade, with elevators being complex electromechanical devices requiring both brawn and welding, mechanical, and electrical skills to install, with more intellectual skills to troubleshoot problems in routine service. But over the years, elevator manufacturers have simplified the electrical work required in the field by developing plug-and-play electrical connections between components. The United States stands out in resisting these trends, with the IUEC’s latest contract specifying that “[a]ll wiring, conduit, and raceways from main line feeder terminals on the controller to other elevator apparatus and operating circuits” lie within the work jurisdiction of union elevator constructors, and that “controllers are not to be shipped from the factory with extended wiring attached thereto.”\u003Csup>207 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The exact line between allowed and disallowed prewiring has been contested over the years. Schindler’s 2014 settlement agreement over its popular 3300 MRL model, for example, specifies that the company “will modify the extended wiring from the machine not to exceed the length of a six foot pigtail,” while extended wiring associated with the elevator doors “will be removed and replaced in the field by Elevator Constructors.”\u003Csup>208\u003C\u002Fsup> In 2017, an arbitrator found in favor of the union in its dispute with ThyssenKrupp Elevator over wiring installed in a factory in its Endura model, a hydraulic MRL elevator. He ordered the company to “cease and desist shipping Endura MRL elevators with the junction box pre-installed and pre-attached,” and to make whole “those employees who installed Endura MRL elevators for the time each lost” – that is, time they did not work and were not paid for – “as a result of not wiring the junction box,” along with some related complaints over brackets.\u003Csup>209\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Other work jurisdiction disputes  \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond the above issues around preassembly and prefabrication – drive machines and their support structures, prewiring, and escalator balustrades – there are a number of other disputes around work jurisdiction that come up from time to time in the public record. Dismantling of old equipment, hoisting of equipment, finishing work in high-end and historic cabin interiors, and, with new technological innovations, remote interaction have all been matters of contention between the union and its employers. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Before a new elevator is installed, the demolition of an older unit sometimes becomes an issue. Article IV of the latest contract states that “[t] he wrecking or dismantling of elevator plants” – including escalators and other related equipment – “shall be performed by [union members],” and “the Union reserves the right to refuse to install any new elevators” in a building where they were not paid to dismantle the old equipment.\u003Csup>210\u003C\u002Fsup> In 2004, Otis was hired to install three hydraulic elevators at a Connecticut Public Television facility in Hartford. Local 91’s business manager pulled two workers off of the job, since the old equipment had been removed by non-union employees, and demanded that Otis pay “one week of labor per team per elevator,” Otis alleged in a court filing. Otis refused to pay for work they did not perform (they were not involved in removing the old equipment), and over the next few days the issue escalated to a statewide strike by the union. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Hoisting equipment has also come up as a point of contention in the past. In 2005, a federal judge heard a case that Otis brought against Boston’s Local 4, which started with an aforementioned incident where the union walked off the job over Otis’s “use of cranes to hoist and put in place elevator plunger\u002Fcylinder units” in a hydraulic elevator installation. Local 4 contended that these units should have been hoisted manually, while Otis claimed that it used cranes to install plunger\u002Fcylinder units for 50 to 60 elevators in the past, without strong objections from the union.\u003Csup>211\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There has also been conflict over high-end elevator cabin interior work. In 2015, Otis was contracted to modernize three passenger elevators in a historic St. Louis hotel. The interior work had to be done by a “professional metals refinishing contractor.” In the Bay Area, with its large stock of historic high-rise buildings, there are IUEC-signatory firms specializing in refinishing work, but that did not appear to be the case in St. Louis.\u003Csup>212\u003C\u002Fsup> Otis therefore subcontracted the refinishing work to a non-union specialist firm. IUEC Local 3’s business manager claimed jurisdiction over the refinishing work, first saying it was a safety issue, but then changing tack and making a purely jurisdictional claim. The business manager said “the issue could be resolved if Otis paid a Union-represented employee to ‘stand by,’ i.e., watch but not work,” which Otis would not agree to. Finding that the union’s apprenticeship program did not include any training for refinishing work and that the union’s business manager “conceded that Union-represented employees might not have the training or skills to do the work,” the National Labor Relations Board found in favor of Otis in the dispute.\u003Csup>213 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Moving from the historic to the modern, elevator companies and the union have also butted heads on the topic of remote monitoring and interaction, going back to at least the 1980s.\u003Csup>214\u003C\u002Fsup> One of the latest trends in vertical transportation is the “internet of things,” or internet connections to monitor and manage elevator performance. Devices attached to elevators and connected to the internet can monitor elevators and alert owners and maintenance companies of problems that have occurred or might occur in the future, and, more controversially, devices can change settings or parameters. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This remote interaction was the topic of a 2016 settlement signed between the IUEC and Otis, triggered by a 2013 arbitration opinion, over the company’s so-called “Otis Elite Service” remote monitoring and interaction system. The agreement allowed “Otis Elite Experts and Specialists” – that is, office employees who work at computers at Otis facilities and are not represented by the IUEC – to “continue to perform remote monitoring and diagnostic functions,” but it designated remote software resets (essentially rebooting the elevator as one would a computer to see if it will fix a problem) and changing parameters (like restricting access to a floor, shutting down elevators, or changing how long doors stay open) as remote interaction that Otis may not perform without the involvement of a union member. Otis is also not allowed to use remote interaction to free a trapped passenger from an elevator. This means that certain services that Otis advertises in other countries in its marketing materials – remotely disabling access to a floor under construction, or rescuing riders from stalled elevators remotely before a mechanic arrives – are unavailable in the United States, and Otis had to pay the union’s scholarship fund $85,000 in compensation for services it provided its clients in contravention of its contract with the union. The agreement also stipulated that Otis must supply the union with logs of all Elite Services remote activities performed on a semiannual basis, to ensure compliance with the agreement going forward.\u003Csup>215 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>Cooperation between labor and manufacturers\u003C\u002Fstrong> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Despite the acrimony, the IUEC and the multinational and other unionized elevator firms are bound together within North America, and share an important interest in industry consolidation. Field employees at Otis, Kone, Schindler, TK Elevator, Mitsubishi Electric, and Fujitec America are unionized and their field workers are represented by the IUEC. While there are many smaller firms that are also union signatories, there are many that are not. These firms might not be held to any union agreement at all, or, in the New York City market in particular, might have workforces that are represented by other unions with less strict contract terms. The labor flexibility that these non-IUEC firms have can put large unionized firms in the North American market at a disadvantage. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Meanwhile, for the union, small- and mid-sized non-IUEC firms threaten their hold on labor to the elevator industry, and weaken their bargaining hand. In a strike, the union cannot withhold its labor from firms that do not hire their workforce, and in ordinary contract negotiations the union’s ability to dictate terms is weakened if signatory employers have to compete against firms not bound by the IUEC’s contract. As such, the union often works alongside the multinational and other signatory firms in opposition to small- and mid-sized non-IUEC firms, to support the oligopolistic market structure dominated by firms that are signatories to the union contract. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The most explicit form of cooperation between the IUEC and its signatory companies takes the form of direct subsidy by the union of some bids for jobs by its employers, in cases where non-union firms might otherwise undercut union bidders. As one correspondent from Cleveland’s Local 17 explained it, “The [Industry Advancement Program] is a fund offered through the Elevator Industry Work Preservation Fund (EIWPF) that pays a signatory company a fee to help offset the difference between what an unorganized [i.e., non-union] company can charge versus a signatory company.”\u003Csup>216\u003C\u002Fsup> Non-union Oracle Elevator has alleged that its Big Four competitors have used subsidies from the IUEC’s Work Preservation Fund to outbid them for government maintenance and repair service contracts, including once at the University of South Carolina’s Columbia campus to subsidize a bid by Otis in 2014, and more recently at Miami International Airport to subsidize Schindler’s bid for the work.\u003Csup>217\u003C\u002Fsup> Funding for the Elevator Industry Work Preservation Fund (which does more than just subsidize bids by signatory firms) is set to increase significantly over the life of the current contract, rising from $0.60 per hour of work at the start of the contract in 2022 to $2.20 per hour in 2027, leapfrogging over hourly contributions to the National Elevator Industry Education Program, which started at $0.65 and will rise to $0.90 in 2027.\u003Csup>218 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The IUEC and its signatory firms also share an interest in promoting licensure for elevator mechanics. The union and National Elevator Industry, Inc. (NEII), which represents large, mostly unionized, manufacturers, have worked together on what they call the Model Elevator Law (MEL), which lays out a licensure regime for mechanics and contractors, and manufacturers and labor advocate together for states to adopt it.\u003Csup>219\u003C\u002Fsup> The MEL and similar adopted regimes are in theory neutral on union and non-union apprenticeship programs, but the union and its owners of non-signatory companies that compete against union labor both tend to view the licensure regimes and associated apprenticeship programs as favoring the union and its signatory companies (see the “Licensure” subsection in 4.2.1). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. Technical Codes and Standards \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevators are highly complex electromechanical systems, and beyond the basic dimensional requirements found in building codes and accessibility standards, there are a series of different technical codes and standards, or norms, which govern their construction and operation (the terms “code” and “standard” have specific and slightly different meanings, but are often confused even within industries, and the exact differences are not important). These codes and standards tend to be written by nonprofit organizations affiliated with but sometimes independent from governments, and form a web of regulation that consists of various different documents which are adopted by governments and which reference each other. The organizations that produce these codes and standards are constantly learning from each other and incorporating common approaches to regulation of new technology, and occasionally effectively harmonizing with each other to create common ways of regulating equipment, installations, and practices. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The world of elevators is currently divided into two major webs of regulation: one based in Europe and centered around the EN 81 family of elevator safety codes, and one based in North America, centered around the A17 family of elevator safety codes. Each of the elevator safety codes is referenced by a building code, and in turn references other technical standards for specifics on things like safety of electrical components. For example, the model building code used in the United States is called the International Building Code, and this references the major North American elevator safety code called A17.1\u002FB44 (written by the nonprofit American Society for Mechanical Engineers and Canada’s CSA Group), which in turn references the Massachusetts-based National Fire Protection Association’s National Electrical Code, otherwise known as NFPA 70, with reference to electrical equipment within the elevator shaft. In Europe, on the other hand, national or subnational building codes reference the EN 81 family of elevator safety norms written by the European Committee for Standardization, and these elevator safety norms in turn reference a different electrical installation standard known as IEC 60364, published by the Geneva-based International Electrotechnical Commission. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The global trend in elevator regulation has been for countries outside of Europe to adopt European elevator safety norms – a trend which North America has so far resisted. There are not significant differences between the European and North American elevator safety rules (and in fact as far back as the 1980s, before a lot of global harmonization had occurred, more than three-quarters of the rules in national standards were already the same), but the mere existence of separate codes and standards, which are not interchangeable when it comes to manufacturer certification, drives up costs.\u003Csup>220\u003C\u002Fsup> The cost consequences of these variations in codes and standards come in two forms: costs driven by different certification processes and separate markets for parts, and costs driven by actual differences in products. In the first category, divergences in North America from global, European-based norms lead to a much smaller North American market for parts. This small North American elevator component market can be very profitable for those who manage to enter it, but entry is difficult for small- and mid-sized foreign firms given the greatly increased cost of and headaches involved in certifying parts to a unique set of rules that only apply to the United States and Canada, which make up a small share of the global elevator market. More stringent standards in North America can also drive up material and manufacturing costs, although interviews with industry professionals suggest that these material differences in products are not significant. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond the differences between North American and global standards, there is an unusual amount of intra-country variation in technical rules in the United States compared to nations abroad. This variation between U.S. states can lead to requirements and complexity that drive costs up even further. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>5.1\u003C\u002Fstrong> \u003Cstrong>ASME A17.1\u002FCSA B44: North America’s standard \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The elevator safety code with the longest history of continuous use is what is now known as the ASME A17.1\u002FCSA B44-2016 code, or A17.1\u002FB44 for short. A Code of Safety Standards for the Construction, Operation, and Maintenance of Elevators, Dumbwaiters and Escalators was first published by the nonprofit American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1921, and serves as a code for jurisdictions to adopt in regulation of vertical transportation devices. Elevator regulation in North America started out as voluntary guidelines and inspections by elevator manufacturers in the 19th century. These were then codified into binding local laws in the 1910s in cities like New York, Boston, and San Francisco with many high-rise buildings, and these local laws were then harmonized into a single U.S. national standard a decade later.\u003Csup>221\u003C\u002Fsup> In the 1990s, manufacturers’ associations in the United States and Canada advocated for harmonization between the U.S. ASME A17.1 and Canadian B44 codes, and in 2007, the first binational A17.1\u002FB44 standard was published.\u003Csup>222\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The North American standard has, in keeping with North American regulatory philosophy generally, been more of what is known as a “prescriptive” code. This means that specific ways of building, maintaining, and inspecting elevators are spelled out in the code, with local or state government inspectors verifying that the requirements are met, without much room for interpretation or creative innovation from either party. As machinery and construction advances and devices become more complex, there has been more of a trend towards more of a “performance-based” approach to regulation, where broad goals and outcomes are stated in regulation, but with more creativity allowed in achieving them. In the same year that the A17.1 and B44 codes were  merged, the A17.7\u002FB44.7 \u003Cem>Performance-Based Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators\u003C\u002Fem> was released, although actual adoption by cities and states has been spotty (see 5.3.6, “Alternative testing,” for more on the practical ramifications).\u003Csup>223\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"724\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240514_map-2-1-1-Small-724x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-782\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240514_map-2-1-1-Small-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240514_map-2-1-1-Small-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240514_map-2-1-1-Small-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240514_map-2-1-1-Small-1086x1536.jpg 1086w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240514_map-2-1-1-Small-1448x2048.jpg 1448w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240514_map-2-1-1-Small.jpg 1454w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 724px) 100vw, 724px\" \u002F>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>5.2\u003C\u002Fstrong> \u003Cstrong>EN 81\u002FISO 8100: Europe’s global standard \u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Up until about a decade ago, Europe was the undisputed champion of the global elevator industry, home to the majority of the world’s installations and most of the world’s largest elevator manufacturers.\u003Csup>224\u003C\u002Fsup> As such, its elevator safety code and related rules have effectively become global standards, and they govern the installation and maintenance of elevators in every major country on earth, with the exception of the United States, Canada, and Japan. These standards are enshrined in the EN 81 (EN for \u003Cem>Europäische Norm\u003C\u002Fem>, or European norm) and related family of standards, with EN 81 standards more recently adopted globally under the title ISO 8100. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Some European elevator safety standards were originally based on those in the United States, likely owing to American cities’ early embrace of the skyscraper.\u003Csup>225\u003C\u002Fsup> After World War II, two trends – urban concentration and European political and economic integration – shifted the locus of elevator regulation away from the United States and to Europe. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Europe, like the United States, underwent a massive post-World War II building boom. The continent, and especially southern European countries like Spain, Italy, and Greece, leaned heavily on dense mid-rise urban housing blocks rather than single-family houses, creating a massive internal market for elevators that would come to exert huge influence on the global industry through technical and regulatory prowess and sheer number of elevators installed across Europe. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The unified European regulation was borne out of two goals: rational regulation of safety and free trade. At a 1957 meeting in Milan, “[i]t was learned that differing opinions concerning safety existed, though risks connected to elevators should be the same in all countries,” wrote a Finnish representative to European elevator safety committees, spelling out the logic for what would eventually become the global safety standard. If humans and the physics of elevators were the same everywhere, why should the safety rules governing them be different? Further motivating a single European standard was the longstanding European project to remove trade barriers between member countries to stimulate commerce and promote political unity. And so the European Economic Community began working in 1969 towards removing technical barriers to elevator and crane sales across the bloc.\u003Csup>226\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Cooperation in Europe over the years has given rise to the EN 81 family of elevator safety standards, and in particular EN 81-20 and EN 81-50, which together lay out safety requirements for the construction and installation of elevators. The European Union uses a system of organizations known as “notified bodies,” which are private entities (e.g., Liftinstituut in the Netherlands, or the TÜV family of corporations in Germany) that have been given the right by member states to assess the conformity of products to adopted technical rules, and then give them a CE mark (standing for \u003Cem>conformité européenne\u003C\u002Fem>, or European conformity) that allows them to be sold throughout the European Union, and increasingly beyond. Often these notified bodies assess conformity based on performance-based requirements of European standards, leaving manufacturers with more flexibility to innovate and come up with new designs, but also placing more responsibility on the notified bodies to exercise good judgment in assessing conformity with elevator standards. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Over time, the EN 81 standards and the rules they reference have spread beyond Europe. For elevator manufacturers – with Kone, Schindler, and ThyssenKrupp based in Europe, and Otis doing almost half of its sales in Europe in 1998 and only a third of its sales today in the Americas – harmonization on the European standard means more efficiencies and lower product development costs.\u003Csup>227\u003C\u002Fsup> For individual jurisdictions, adopting European standards means getting rid of the cost of developing, reviewing, and amending increasingly complex sets of technical rules governing elevators and the components within them. And so, around the turn of the millennium, the world went from a dizzying array of local standards and codes – one for Russia, another for China, another for India – to almost complete convergence on European standards. The Chinese adoption of European standards was quite a coup for the Euro-dominant global elevator industry, since China will by 2030 account for half of the world’s total installed elevator base, and already accounts for the vast majority of new installations. The Chinese adoption of European rules as aided by copying the European standards into the International Organization for Standardization’s ISO 8100 global standards, theoretically giving China a say in code development, even if in practice Europe still dominates rulemaking.\u003Csup>228\u003C\u002Fsup> By 2015, global harmonization around the European family of safety codes was nearly complete, with only three code families remaining worldwide – A17.1\u002FB44 in the U.S. and Canada, a Japanese set of codes seemingly only used there, and the EN 81 family ruling in the rest of the world.\u003Csup>229\u003C\u002Fsup>  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">\u003Cstrong>5.3\u003C\u002Fstrong> \u003Cstrong>Differences between standards and consequences for North America\u003C\u002Fstrong> \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As a global EN 81\u002FISO 8100 family of elevator codes and related referenced technical standards have developed beyond the borders of the United States and Canada, elevators held to the A17.1\u002FB44 standard and its related web of North American technical rules have diverged in design from those in the rest of the world in some different ways, both specific and general.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The safety standards and other standards referenced by them are incredibly complex, but we will highlight a few substantive differences between North American elevators and those in the rest of the world. As discussed in section 2.4, “Safety outcomes,” the below differences have no measurable impact on consumer or worker safety. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond these specific differences in standards, the widespread adoption in almost every country in the world of the European web of rules has left North America on an island when it comes to product certification. The testing process to ensure compliance with either standard is expensive, so the ability for a manufacturer to produce a product that complies with the applicable rules does not guarantee that the product will actually be certified for use in all markets. Successfully obtaining certification for a component in Europe more easily allows its use across nearly the entire world, in countries with well over 10 million installed elevators, including the massive Chinese market. Obtaining certification in North America, on the other hand, only opens up a market of a little more than 1 million installed units – about the size of the Italian market, as one person who specializes in codes and standards put it. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Because of the vastly larger size of the elevator market that is governed by European rules, there are also vastly more parts available for countries adopting European rules than for the U.S. and Canadian markets. The unique North American standard makes it difficult for distributors of elevator kits designed in Europe or Asia by mid-sized firms like Orona (from Spain’s Basque Country) or Kleemann (from Greece) to enter the market and compete with the largest multinationals. The lower availability of parts for the North American market likely also contributes to delays in procuring parts for repairs in the United States and Canada, leading to less reliability for users. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While the United States and Canada have worked towards regulatory harmonization, full harmonization of codes across jurisdictions within the two countries remains elusive. A new version of A17.1\u002FB44 is published every three years, but only a few of the nearly 100 jurisdictions that regulate elevator safety (a mix of cities, states, provinces, and special authorities) automatically adopt the latest version. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The majority of North American jurisdictions adopt new versions of A17.1\u002FB44 at their own pace, leading to 20 years’ worth of different versions of the standard in use across North America. Beyond adopting versions of the standard from different years, many jurisdictions also amend the model code, adding or removing specific language that changes the way elevators can be built, maintained, and inspected. An extreme example is California, where in theory the 2004 version is adopted. That code however predates many standard features of new elevators, like the machine room less configuration and the use of belts rather than ropes to hold up the car.\u003Csup>230\u003C\u002Fsup> As a result, new elevators in the state must go through a theoretically discretionary process, making the adopted code text somewhat irrelevant to actual installations. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"796\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240318_CFB_map-3-CMYK-796x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-783\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240318_CFB_map-3-CMYK-796x1024.jpg 796w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240318_CFB_map-3-CMYK-233x300.jpg 233w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240318_CFB_map-3-CMYK-768x988.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240318_CFB_map-3-CMYK-1195x1536.jpg 1195w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240318_CFB_map-3-CMYK-1593x2048.jpg 1593w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002F240318_CFB_map-3-CMYK-scaled.jpg 1991w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 796px) 100vw, 796px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The above map was adapted from one drawn by Avire, a vendor of elevator communications systems, and may not be accurate or up-to-date.\u003Cbr>It is intended to show the range of different versions of the A17.1\u002FB44 elevator safety code that have been adopted throughout North America. The IUEC’s Elevator Industry Work\u003Cbr>Preservation Fund, UpCodes, and the National Elevator Industry, Inc. all keep different versions of this document to varying degrees of completeness and up-to-dateness.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The process for adopting and amending the A17.1\u002FB44 standard into code can also be messy and unprofessional. In November 2020, the director of Illinois’s Elevator Safety Review Board chastised board members after failing nine consecutive times to set up a meeting that could meet quorum since the prior meeting two years earlier. “I have individuals that will not even respond to numerous emails that are sent out,” he told those in attendance. “I am not the babysitter of this board.”\u003Csup>231\u003C\u002Fsup> Because there is a separate board for Chicago, the Illinois board has jurisdiction over the state only outside of the City of Chicago (the Illinois board attracted controversy years earlier over the questionable appointment of a number of IUEC officials after the Chicago local made a $10,000 donation to Governor Rod Blagojevich, which prosecutors allege was bundled by Tony Rezko).\u003Csup>232\u003C\u002Fsup> Carve-outs for large cities from statewide codes (of all kinds, not just for elevators) are common in the United States, a practice which increases the complexity and inconsistency of rules and vests powers in Swiss cheese-like jurisdictions, depriving them of the scale, care, and oversight that comes with consistent rulemaking across large geographic areas. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.3.1 Machine room less elevators\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The most significant innovation in elevator technology over the past few decades has been the advent of the machine room less elevator, or MRL. Electric traction elevators have important components – the machine, governors, and controller – that historically sat above the shaft, in a dedicated room. This room usually has to be housed in a small mechanical penthouse on the roof of the building, as the shaft must extend high enough to accommodate a landing on the top floor of the building and the machine room must sit above that. This machine room penthouse is expensive to build, and to avoid it, hydraulic elevators were often used for low-rise buildings, since the machine room for a hydraulic elevator has more flexible placement options. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beginning around the 1980s, engineers in Europe and then later Japan began experimenting with linear induction motors, which allowed manufacturers to shrink some parts and move others. Components that previously had to sit in large machine rooms above the shaft could be moved to within or near the shaft itself with an electrical MRL model – in particular the machine, but also the controller, which can even be placed inside of a landing door jamb – saving space and also lowering energy consumption. \u003Cbr>\u003Cbr>The resulting new MRL elevators did not work well with existing safety codes that assumed the presence of a machine room, but codes in Europe and Asia – which were at the time being harmonized into what is now today the EN81\u002FISO 8100 family of codes – quickly adapted, and the major manufacturers all introduced MRL models to the European market in the 1990s.\u003Csup>233\u003C\u002Fsup> In North America, however, regulators were much more cautious. New York City launched a pilot program to consider MRL elevators in 2001, and the ASME A17.1 standard did not include rules that accommodated MRLs until a supplement was published in 2005.\u003Csup>234 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A number of American jurisdictions resisted the trend towards MRLs, but the industry mostly prevailed and the MRL is now the most common type of elevator installed in new low- and mid-rise buildings, even if it has not achieved the same market penetration as in Europe and Asia. A few states are still ambivalent towards the technology, with California being the most resistant. The state has been trying for years to update its rules to reference a more recent standard than the current 20-year-old A17.1 standard it theoretically adopts, but even these proposed changes would include significant variations from the North American standard.\u003Csup>235\u003C\u002Fsup> Much of the discussion revolves around the placement of machinery and controllers, with California regulators taking the position that current industry practices are not safe (though no data has been presented to show that California has better safety outcomes than the rest of the country, or Europe).\u003Csup>236\u003C\u002Fsup> The location of controllers remains an issue even in more liberal U.S. jurisdictions, which often still require separate controller rooms while abroad smaller controller spaces are standard practice. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.3.2 Landing doors \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Doors are an essential safety component of a modern elevator, keeping people from outside the elevator from falling into the shaft, and keeping those inside an elevator from being exposed to the shaft itself. Both EN 81-20 and A17.1\u002FB44 have prescriptive requirements for landing door strength. The North American A17.1\u002FB44 requires that a 100-square centimeter compact area near the center of a door panel be able to withstand a force of 2,500 newtons, while EN 81\u002FISO 8100 requires the same area to resist a force of 1,000 newtons.\u003Csup>237\u003C\u002Fsup> The A17.1 requirement used to require about the same strength as today’s EN 81-20 requirement, but was made stricter in the 1993 version of the A17.1 code.\u003Csup>238\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond the strength of the landing door, European and North American codes also differ in terms of fire testing – one of many examples of differences in rules that are referenced by but not contained within the main safety standard. The American A17.1\u002FB44 code references UL 10B (or an equivalent standard), which requires that, after 90 minutes of being heated to over 1,800°F, the lobby side of the entrance has to be able to withstand being sprayed for 20 minutes in a specific way, without showing any openings beyond a certain size, in order to simulate a fire burning for 90 minutes without intervention, followed by a hose attack by firefighters.\u003Csup>239\u003C\u002Fsup> In Europe, on the other hand, EN 81-20 references EN 81-58, and most manufacturers target a longer burn time of 120 minutes, but without the subsequent hose test that the American standards impose afterwards.\u003Csup>240\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The specific differences in requirements have never, as far as we know, made any life safety impact in the real world, but they do make a big difference in parts availability and the competitive landscape of the elevator door industry. The German non-proprietary elevator component manufacturer Wittur offers a concrete example of the narrower range of parts available on the North American market. On Wittur’s European, Chinese, Eurasian, and Indian websites, would-be buyers are offered the choice of over 20 landing doors or related items and a similar number of car doors, with similar offerings across these regions. On the North American version of the website, however, at least two-thirds of the options disappear. The same pattern of more limited product availability for the North American market can be found with lift machines, safety devices, and other component categories in their catalog.\u003Csup>241\u003C\u002Fsup>    \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"763\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_NA-1024x763.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-784\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_NA-1024x763.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_NA-300x223.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_NA-768x572.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_NA-1536x1144.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_NA-2048x1525.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Wittur landing door part availability in Europe.\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"763\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_EU-1024x763.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-785\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_EU-1024x763.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_EU-300x223.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_EU-768x572.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_EU-1536x1144.jpg 1536w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002Fwitter_EU-2048x1525.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Wittur landing door part availability in North America.\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.3.3 Two-way audiovisual communication \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">By one estimate, the chance of getting trapped in an elevator during a ride – an entrapment, in industry parlance – is 1 in 100,000.\u003Csup>242\u003C\u002Fsup> While on an individual level this is quite low, elevators are heavily used devices, so entrapments are an everyday occurrence across a large enough area. Codes have evolved over the years to require better communication for people trapped in elevators, starting with alarm bells that alert anybody within earshot of the shaft that somebody is stuck in a car, and eventually evolving into today’s global standard contained in EN 81-28 of a hands-free phone line in the elevator cab. The line is continuously monitored by a rescue service that can reach the site within no more than one hour, with backup power and the ability for the rescue service to communicate verbally back to within the cabin, and attempt to verify that the emergency was real and not an accidental push of the button, and reassure riders that help is on the way.\u003Csup>243\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This was the American approach as well, contained in A17.1\u002FB44, up until a 2018 change to the model International Building Code, which then triggered a change in the A17.1\u002FB44 safety code. In the leadup to the 2018 edition of the International Building Code (only in use in the United States), one unaffiliated individual won a code change to require two-way communication in both audio and visual form, to accommodate deaf and hard-of-hearing elevator riders. An example of the problem to be solved with the code change was noted in a parallel code change proposal, with the proponent writing about an incident that occurred one year earlier in Virginia where two deaf people were trapped in an elevator when the power failed, and were rescued by the fire department after they texted a friend, who in turn alerted hotel management (the ubiquity of cell phones has added an additional communications layer to elevators, and in Europe, most cabins now have a sticker with a phone number for riders to call for disentrapments, in addition to built-in equipment).\u003Csup>244\u003C\u002Fsup> We could not find any more serious incidents involving deaf or hard-of-hearing individuals trapped in elevators. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the code change request, the proponent, responding to the International Code Council’s prompt for the cost impact, stated that it would not increase the cost of construction – and would in fact decrease it, by clarifying an uncertain regulatory situation – since “the code already requires conformance with these standards” (which was not in any meaningful way true, since the system was not in practice provided in or requested by jurisdictions).\u003Csup>245\u003C\u002Fsup> In a separate proposal for essentially the same requirement, the code change request proponent stated that the cost of the equipment would be $2,500 for an existing building and $5,000 for a new installation. This cost was written off by the code change proponent as “negligible or minimal to the building owner\u002Foperator,” since there are “various incentives such as tax write-offs” available (which is not true for the equipment in question), and that for new construction, there will “be no significant additional costs involved because it will be built into the design\u002Fbuild” (which is a misunderstanding of how costs accumulate for construction).\u003Csup>246\u003C\u002Fsup> The reasoning around the cost is typical of changes to model and adopted codes and standards in the United States, where small cost increases are each written off as individually negligible, and the negative accessibility, life safety, or other consequences of higher costs leading to fewer new elevators or new buildings generally are never considered. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">After tweaking code language across multiple overlapping codes over the years, the two-way audiovisual communications requirement is finally making its way into new elevators in North America. The code change has been one of the most significant in elevator regulation in North America in recent years, and has, according to interviews with elevator manufacturers, indeed driven up costs for new elevators by roughly $5,000, as the code change proponent predicted in one of the code change proposals. One smaller manufacturer put the wholesale price of the device at around $2,000 (which does not include labor or a profit margin for the elevator manufacturer), while one proposal from a Big Four manufacturer noted that there would be a $6,500 change order to comply with the new code. The requirement necessitates the installation of a number of pieces of equipment – cameras and displays in cars (and the ability to use existing buttons to communicate), a four-hour battery backup for the modem and router in case of power failure, equipment in the machine room, and a traveling cable that can withstand the constant movement of an elevator cabin to connect it all together.\u003Csup>247 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond the installation cost, there is also significant ongoing operational cost for both monitoring and for the new internet line that must be provided to enable video communication, which went unmentioned in the code change proposal to require these systems. Elevator monitoring is part of a broader market for round-the-clock active monitoring services that is growing in the U.S. and Canada, propelled by unique building code requirements not found at the same scale as in other countries. One company serving this market quoted the video monitoring and data connection needed to comply with this new requirement at $50 per month plus tax, on top of the $65 per month plus tax cost for audio communications and monitoring already required. The net present value of the incremental operational cost works out to a bit under $10,000 using a 7 percent discount rate – greater than the cost of installation. Or, put another way, the 1 million elevators in the United States will, once modernized to meet the new code requirement, incur an additional monitoring and data connection cost equal to around $600 million each year, plus tax where applicable. Beyond the simple cost, the additional ongoing monitoring relationship adds to the growing problem of vendor lock-in, making it more difficult to switch away from the original equipment manufacturer, hampering competition for service, maintenance, and modernizations (which make up the majority of elevator companies’ sales). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The requirement also introduces another point of failure into elevators. The requirement is new and adoption is slow and uneven, so the author has only seen one elevator with the required device installed, at a New York City Subway station which recently had an elevator installed for the first time. During the first visit, the device appeared to be working properly. But on the second, “Out of Service” was displayed on the screen. Riders might reasonably assume that the entire elevator is out of service, and avoid using it to avoid the risk of getting stuck in the cabin.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There is no requirement for video monitoring or two-way visual communication in the global EN 81\u002FISO 8100 family of codes. Video cameras in elevators are legally fraught in Europe, given European Union privacy regulation, and are likely to be illegal in Germany and Slovenia.\u003Csup>248\u003C\u002Fsup> This puts the U.S. and Canada on a technological island when it comes to video monitoring and communications, unable to benefit from economies of scale in research and development, or the more competitive market that comes from following global standards.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.3.4 Toe guards\u002Faprons \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">With the danger of elevator free fall largely eliminated, one of the major remaining risks to elevator users is falling into an unprotected hoistway. One of the ways this can happen is that riders are rescued – or attempt to rescue themselves – from stalled cars, but the car has stopped above the floor landing, leaving some distance open between the bottom of the car and the top of the floor. To protect the shaft in these cases, safety rules require the installation of what is known as a toe guard, or apron. This device hangs off the front of the car below the doors and runs the full width of the opening, protecting anybody who needs to step or jump down onto the landing floor from missing their step and falling back into an open shaft. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A complication of the toe guard is that, since it hangs below the car, it functionally requires a deeper “pit,” or extension of the elevator hoistway below the bottom floor, in order to accommodate it. While this isn’t a major driver of cost for the elevator itself – the toe guard is a fairly thin piece of metal, without the strength or fire rating requirements, or duplication at every landing, of doors – it does increase the cost of the elevator shaft, by requiring more concrete and digging below the ground or basement floors, which can be expensive. Manufacturers in North America and abroad have developed retractable, or collapsible, toe guards to reduce the extra depth that must be accommodated, but not every jurisdiction in the U.S. allows these, and in any case, a deeper, fully extended toe guard will require a deeper pit to accommodate even a retracted version. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The A17.1\u002FB44 code requires that the fully extended toe guard reach 48 in. (or 1.22 m) in length, while EN 81-20 and its global ISO 8100 equivalent requires 75 cm of protection (or 29.5 in.).\u003Csup>249\u003C\u002Fsup> Off-the-shelf collapsible versions sold by third parties that meet North American requirements can be found sold online as small as 85 cm, whereas European versions can be found to collapse down to 25 cm.\u003Csup>250\u003C\u002Fsup> Partly as a consequence of these longer required toe guards, planning guides for architects in North America require deeper elevator pits than those in Europe. For example, Schindler’s 3300 North American model requires 1.52 m of depth, compared to 1.06 m to 1.1 m for its 3000 model sold in Italy. Otis’s North American Gen3 Core requires 1.753 m to 2.108 m, compared to 93 cm for its Gen2 Life sold in Switzerland.\u003Csup>251\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cfigure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\">\u003Cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"695\" src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002FIMG_1242_Crop-1024x695.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-786\" srcset=\"https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002FIMG_1242_Crop-1024x695.jpg 1024w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002FIMG_1242_Crop-300x204.jpg 300w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002FIMG_1242_Crop-768x521.jpg 768w, https:\u002F\u002Fadmin.centerforbuilding.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2025\u002F07\u002FIMG_1242_Crop.jpg 1045w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \u002F>\u003Cfigcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Out-of-service video communication device, on a New York City Subway elevator.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.3.5 Elevator lobbies and hoistway opening protection \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A uniquely American – and relatively new – expense involved in buildings with elevators is the intense requirements for protection of elevator hoistway openings from smoke spread. These requirements have been in America’s model International Building Code (IBC) and some prior model codes in some form for decades, but recent clarifications have dramatically increased installation requirements in practice. Largely due to one major fire over 40 years ago, before modern sprinkler and other fire safety requirements, these hoistway protection requirements can now add tens of thousands of dollars in extra cost for developers who choose to provide elevators in even small buildings. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevators sit in shafts, which pose a special problem for fire safety in buildings. Shafts like stairways, elevator hoistways, waste chutes, and atria communicate between floors, and are not sealed off by horizontal elements like floors to keep smoke from a fire from traveling upwards within a building. In 1980, a fire at the MGM Grand Hotel on the Las Vegas Strip killed 85 guests and employees after breaking out in an unattended, unsprinklered restaurant on the casino level at the bottom of the building. While the fire itself didn’t spread far, and the sprinklers worked well to suppress it where they were installed (and even reduced its spread in nearby unsprinklered areas), there was enough fuel and air supply on the fire’s level of origin to produce heavy smoke. This smoke traveled upwards through unprotected elevator shafts and other parts of the building to reach the upper floors, and was responsible for most of the 85 deaths.\u003Csup>252\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"> After the MGM Grand Hotel fire, the Uniform Building Code – a model code that was adopted in the western half of the United States at the time of and in the two decades after the fire – was updated to require hoistway protection for high-rise buildings, defined as buildings where the floor on the top level of the building sat at least 75 feet above the level at which firefighters would enter the building. Hoistway opening protection, at least nowadays, can mean elevator lobbies with fire-rated doors between the area containing the openings to the elevator hoistways and the rest of the building, but the requirement can also be met through other means. These include smoke curtains that automatically unfurl to cover hoistways, “hold-open” doors that are left open in normal operation but slam shut to cover hoistway openings when a fire is detected, or a hoistway pressurization system that that creates a pressure differential between the shaft and the rest of the building to prevent smoke from entering the hoistway and push it out when it does manage to infiltrate the shaft.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A divide emerged between the east and west coasts on the topic of hoistway opening protection, with the west coast jurisdictions favoring the systems (perhaps due to proximity to Las Vegas), and east coast jurisdictions allowing developers to build without such systems. When America’s model codes were consolidated around the turn of the millennium into the IBC by the newly formed International Code Council, hoistway opening protection rules were adopted into the new code. The first edition of the code, in 2000, waived the requirement for buildings with automatic sprinklers under six stories, and this height was gradually raised over the years, exempting even taller buildings.\u003Csup>253\u003C\u002Fsup> New York City, which has always had the most distinctive building code in the United States and a very large high-rise and elevatored building stock, exempts residential buildings of any height from the requirements for hoistway opening protection.\u003Csup>254\u003C\u002Fsup> For over a generation after the MGM Grand fire and up until at least the last few years, most multifamily buildings in America have been built with sprinklers and without hoistway opening protection.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The IBC contained an ambiguity though around hoistway opening protection, and a Colorado-based building code official and longtime participant in ICC code development asked the council to study the issue and clarify the code language. The ICC convened a technical committee chaired by a Chicago-based fire protection engineer and longtime committee member at both the ICC and the National Fire Protection Association to study the issue and put forth recommendations. After scientific analysis and review of historical performance, the technical committee came to the conclusion that buildings under 420 feet in height (roughly 40 stories) should not require elevator lobbies or any other hoistway opening protection, for a number of reasons. These included ease of evacuation, new requirements for automatic sprinklers to both suppress fire and cool smoke down where fire does occur to reduce the smoke’s buoyancy and tendency to migrate upwards, and the insignificance of the “stack effect” in lower buildings that speeds the movement of air upwards through shafts. Finally, historic performance was considered, with the technical committee writing that “code officials participating in the study group stated that lobbies have traditionally not been required in these type buildings in their jurisdictions and their experience has been good.” That is to say, in the three decades between the MGM Grand fire and the study, the tragedy was not repeated, likely due to revised elevator recall operations, modified HVAC design, requirements for protecting building joints, and increased sprinkler requirements. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Another ICC committee and then the full voting membership ultimately decided against adopting the recommendations from the technical committee to forgo hoistway protection in buildings shorter than 420 feet, without much documented explanation or rebuttal of the technical committee’s findings.\u003Csup>255\u003C\u002Fsup> And so since the 2018 edition of the IBC, some sort of protection has been required for hoistway openings above the ground floor in virtually all multifamily buildings with an elevator.\u003Csup>256\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">When the code change to require hoistway opening protection was proposed, the required cost impact was stated thusly:\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This will not increase the cost of construction depending upon how this issue is being interpreted. This item will only increase construction if it had not been interpreted to require protection of the hoistway opening in rated corridors. This would involve having to comply with Section 3006.3.\u003Csup>257 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While it is true that there is no additional cost if the prior codes had been interpreted by the local jurisdiction to require it all along, this was not the case in most jurisdictions (this way of avoidance of stating costs in ICC analyses is not uncommon, with the same logic used in one case to avoid putting a price tag on the two-way audiovisual elevator cabin communication requirement, in section 5.3.3). The new language has raised costs by tens of thousands of dollars in small buildings, and more as the number of floors rises. There are a few different types of hoistway protection possible (smoke curtains, hold-open doors, hoistway pressurization, and elevator lobbies), but in mid-rise buildings, smoke curtains and hold-open doors are the most popular options due to cost. One quote obtained for an installation in the Pacific Northwest put the installed cost of 20 elevator hoistway smoke curtains at around $114,000, or around $5,700 per elevator per floor (with no requirements on the ground floor). This figure does not include taxes or any markup by the general contractor, and a 10 percent upcharge is levied for wider elevator frames found in installations by two of the four major manufacturers. Another distributor of the same manufacturer’s elevator smoke curtains quoted the installed cost in New York City at around double that price: $52,000 in total for installation at five landings, with upgrade options available as well – about 1 percent of the building’s total construction cost, and on par with what an entire elevator would cost for a building of such a size in Europe. As an active system, there may also be ongoing costs associated with testing and maintenance.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5.3.6 Alternative testing\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Modern elevators have a number of redundant safety mechanisms to stop a cabin from falling if one or more parts malfunction, and these must be tested periodically to ensure they’re in good working order. In the United States and Canada, the most important test is known as the Category 5 periodic test, performed every five years. In North America (and, in the past, abroad), this involves loading each elevator car with weights equal to or a bit over the rated capacity of the car. Various safety mechanisms are then tested and measured to ensure they perform as designed. A more modern and advanced form of testing without weights, known in North American as alternative testing, has been available for decades, but is generally not allowed in the United States by state and local elevator safety boards, in keeping with broader American industry themes of distrust of foreign technology and preservation of work for mechanics, at the expense of elevator owners and users. Where it is allowed in North America (particularly in Canada), the market for approved alternative testing equipment is less competitive than in Europe. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In Germany, the equivalent of the Category 5 test has long been required to be performed every two years, rather than every five as in the United States, which posed a few problems when using weights. Firstly, testing with load is destructive to the safety brakes, and after a handful of tests, they may have to be replaced (they are a redundant safety system and not engaged in normal operation, so they are not designed to be durable enough to withstand repeated use).\u003Csup>258\u003C\u002Fsup> Secondly, the actual weights used to add load to the car are very heavy, weighing up to a few tons depending on the size of the elevator. Weights this heavy can cause damage to elevator cabins and lobby floors, and can even cause injuries to mechanics themselves. One proponent of allowing alternative testing in the United States claimed that over half of injuries to elevator mechanics are caused by hauling weights around.\u003Csup>259\u003C\u002Fsup> Even when no damage is done, hauling these weights in and out of buildings takes time, and that labor must be compensated. Finally, traditional testing with load is imprecise (parts of the test involve marking distances to see how far the elevator slides down the rails before safety mechanisms engage), and the test results in a binary pass\u002Ffail grade, while weightless alternative testing uses more advanced measurements to produce greater information about system performance. All of these problems apply to the North American five-year testing intervals too, but were magnified in Germany due to the more frequent testing regime.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Due to the shortcomings of testing with load, German engineers developed an alternative method, using the output from accelerometers and rope tension measuring gauges to test components without hauling thousands of pounds of weights in and out of elevator cabs. Electronic devices are affixed to various parts of the elevator and the tests are run with the car empty, while a computerized testing system measures how the car reacts when various braking and traction mechanisms are triggered. These measurements are then analyzed and forces are determined, which are in turn used to determine whether the elevator would pass using the traditional testing with load. Beyond the efficiency and gentleness of using this alternative electronic testing method, the precise measurement allows finer analysis of how the elevator’s systems will react to different forms of failure, including in a more typical scenario with only a few people in the car rather than the full rated weight, ensuring occupants are not injured by being flung upwards within the car as safety mechanisms engage and it stops abruptly. Alternative testing can also pick up on problems and miscalibration before they would rise to the level of failing a traditional test with load.\u003Csup>260\u003C\u002Fsup> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Alternative testing has been in use in Germany since the 1990s, when multiple notified bodies, who perform tests in Germany (see section 5.2, “EN 81\u002FISO 8100: Europe’s global standard,” for more on notified bodies), introduced weightless testing systems, and it is now the standard way to test elevators.\u003Csup>261\u003C\u002Fsup> This established European technology began to be demonstrated for and discussed by industry professionals in North America in the late 2000s, and in 2013, a weightless alternative testing option was added to the A17.1\u002FB44 standard. The standard, however, leaves the use of alternative testing “subject to the approval by the authority having jurisdiction,” and most AHJs in the United States – including those of all of the largest cities and states – have not granted this permission. Alternative testing also faces the additional barrier (largely theoretical, as so few jurisdictions allow it anyway) of a duplicative “baseline” test required if, like California or Pennsylvania, the jurisdiction has not adopted A17.7, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers’ performance-based standard, without which the cost of the first five-year test will effectively double as the test will need to be performed with and then without weights.\u003Csup>262\u003C\u002Fsup> Canadian elevator safety regulators, on the other hand, were eager to adopt provisions allowing alternative testing, and Ontario began allowing it in 2013, even before formal adoption of the 2013 edition of A17.1\u002FB44.\u003Csup>263 \u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Minutes from elevator safety boards offer some insight into why U.S. jurisdictions have rejected alternative testing. In Illinois, one board member asked rhetorically, after a presentation where a manufacturer said that the technology is already in widespread use in Canada and Europe and has been adopted by a few U.S. states, “Does Illinois want to be a test state for the Midwest?” Another responded that Ontario’s elevator safety authority “is pretty strict, so if Ontario is accepting it, we’re not being the first,” to which the first member replied, “We’re not in Canada. We’re in the U.S.”\u003Csup>264\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Regarding the modern engineering approach, a number of people sitting on American safety boards have expressed disbelief that the performance of an overloaded elevator car can be predicted based on the force of brakes measured with a no-load test, through use of Newton’s Second Law of Motion. Based on the transcript of an advisory committee hearing in Washington State, it seems that in some cases committee members did not understand the basics of how the technology worked – that it was measuring the force of the brakes, and not simply performing the traditional manual test without weights.\u003Csup>265\u003C\u002Fsup> In another forum there was confusion between electronic testing and remote testing, with no worker physically present.\u003Csup>266\u003C\u002Fsup> The engineering behind elevator safety can indeed be quite complex, and this complexity is what drove the creation of model codes and standards that are vetted more intensely than individual state or city elevator safety boards are capable of. Despite attempts by the industry and many experts to harmonize codes across the U.S. and Canada, alternative testing is just one example of authorities having jurisdiction not being fully prepared to defer to the judgment of standard-writing bodies. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Finally, while adopted A17.1\u002FB44 codes are supposed to focus solely on safety, the labor consequences of testing elevators without hauling tons of weights into cabs can nevertheless play into decisions. One speaker in Illinois brought up the fact that “union rules allow the companies to only send one guy out when there’s no test weights on the job,” whereas the IUEC contract requires two union members when weights are involved.\u003Csup>267\u003C\u002Fsup> A union representative wrote to Pennsylvania’s elevator safety board to urge them not to adopt alternative testing as they were considering adopting the 2016 edition of A17.1\u002FB44 (so far it’s a moot point, as the state remains on the 2000 code – the oldest still adopted in the U.S.), and that same representative successfully motioned to disallow it in Missouri, where he sits on the board.\u003Csup>268\u003C\u002Fsup> Wurtec, an alternative testing vendor, has seemingly recognized the labor opposition to alternative testing, with a Wurtec presentation stating that “[m]ore discerning testing can create more work doing needed maintenance\u002Frepairs.”\u003Csup>269\u003C\u002Fsup> This stands in contrast to a testing firm in Germany that claims “significant” cost savings from weightless testing, illustrating the different attitudes towards labor-savings efficiencies in the elevator industry in Europe and the United States.\u003Csup>270\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the United States, Wurtec is the only distributor of an alternative testing system, selling German manufacturer Henning’s ELVI system. Henning is not the only manufacturer of these systems in Germany, where there are many competing notified bodies who do this testing with their own systems. TÜV SÜD inspects 400,000 elevators each year in Europe, or roughly one in 10 elevators, and expended resources early on trying to convince North American jurisdictions of the merits of the technology.\u003Csup>271\u003C\u002Fsup> Discouraged by the slow pace of adoption, they gave up on the market, leaving Henning’s system (distributed by Wurtec) as the only option in the U.S. and Canada.\u003Csup>272\u003C\u002Fsup> As is common in the elevator industry, a competitive market abroad was whittled down to a far less competitive one in the U.S. and Canada.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In 2015, responding to a California proposal to continue to not allow alternative testing, National Elevator Industry, Inc., the U.S. manufacturer trade group, estimated the cost of hiring the second mechanic needed to handle weights for a day for a test at $1,000 per five-year test per device (the estimate is plausible – Big Four manufacturers can charge well over $2,000 per day today in some U.S. markets for a mechanic to operate an elevator while a building is still under construction, before the manufacturer has released it to the customer for use).\u003Csup>273\u003C\u002Fsup> For their legally required cost-benefit analysis, Washington State regulators nevertheless claimed that disallowing alternative testing “is unlikely to add any additional cost to affected parties,” since nobody in Washington State began performing the testing during the brief window when it was legal.\u003Csup>274\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. Recommendations For Reform \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"> As discussed in section 2, “Access,” North America has far fewer elevators than would be expected based on its population and level of wealth. The high costs of installing and operating elevators in the United States and Canada are, in part, responsible for this deficit. Parents, the elderly, people with disabilities, and multifamily residents generally would be better served by elevators if they did not cost many times what they do abroad. For prices to come down to prices seen abroad, policies must be brought in line with policies abroad. Achieving, for example, Swiss costs for new elevator installations should be possible, but would require big shifts in policy and attitudes at multiple levels of government, in ways that would go far beyond the elevator industry, and which may not be realistic. That said, the gap in elevator costs between North America and Western Europe is so large that there are many opportunities for incremental efficiencies and cost reductions, and therefore improved access to elevators. The extent of reform is limited only by North Americans’ commitment to housing affordability, quality, and accessibility. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Cost drivers can be divided into cabin size, labor, and technical codes, and this report’s recommendations for reform will be divided into those same three categories. Each influences the others, and they should be thought of not as distinct silos, but as interlocking issues that can help or hinder reform in other areas. Barriers to entry posed by technical codes, for example, can support the current labor status quo by keeping foreign firms who do not have existing agreements with the IUEC out of the North American market. Excessive cabin size requirements can reinforce labor shortages by requiring more work to install an elevator. The IUEC’s labor monopoly gives it a leg up on committees tasked with choosing which technical code provisions to adopt and recommend. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Specific policy reforms are presented in the subsections below. Beyond these, however, there are a few shifts in attitudes that must take place among regulators if the United States and Canada are to ever approach the elevator abundance of other high-income countries. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Firstly, regulators should consider safety and accessibility more holistically than they have been. Cost and access to elevators are inversely related, so anything that raises cost – even if the intent is to provide greater accessibility – will come at the expense of accessibility in buildings that become uneconomical to build. Stricter safety requirements will come at the expense of the health and welfare of those who would benefit from elevators but are deprived of them due to higher costs. Regulators ought to take a bigger-picture approach to the issues of safety and accessibility, and take cost-benefit analyses more seriously. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Secondly, regulators must take international best practices more seriously. The elevator industry has become highly globalized, but regulation in North America remains parochial. Mentions of how things are done abroad are often met with eye rolling and denigration. The term “international” appears in various North American organizations that routinely ignore international best practice – the \u003Cem>International\u003C\u002Fem> Code Council, the \u003Cem>International\u003C\u002Fem> Association of Elevator Consultants, the \u003Cem>International\u003C\u002Fem> Union of Elevator Constructors. These organizations recognize the rhetorical benefits of an international outlook, but they ignore or \u003Cbr>resist global trends. In the absence of strong data on the inadequacy of international practices, deference should be given to what is tried and true in societies with far more – and far more affordable – elevators than North America.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6.1 Cabin size requirements \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Currently, rules about when an elevator is required in American apartment buildings (if they are required at all) are found mostly in federal law, while requirements for the size of cars are found in both the building code and the ICC’s A117 accessibility standard. Exact dimensional requirements for stretcher elevators are not found written into any code at all, with local authorities instead deciding whether designs meet performance-based standards. There are typically no legally binding standards at all for the number of elevator cars in larger buildings, leading to difficult situations for people dependent on elevators when cars are placed out of service for repairs or modernization. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The current rules governing when elevators must be installed in multifamily buildings and how large the cabins must be should be consolidated into a single code and clarified. Elevators should be required in multifamily buildings of a certain size, regardless of whether the ground floor is accessible, while at the same time allowing for smaller cabins for smaller buildings and implementing other technical and labor reforms to bring costs down. There should also be incentives in the code to provide more redundancy.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The current lack of any clear requirement at all in most jurisdictions to install an elevator in an apartment building (as long as the ground floor is accessible) has been workable due to a raft of unrelated and largely unintentional zoning and building code rules that make small apartment buildings functionally impossible to build. But as codes are being reformed to smooth small-lot development, developers seem to be experimenting with larger and larger walk-up buildings, and finding market acceptance. Five- and six-story walk-ups are unbecoming of one of the wealthiest countries in the world, and the model International Building Code should be revised to require an elevator at a certain height, or in buildings with a certain number of units. Based on the experience of other high-income nations, three or four stories is an appropriate maximum height for a walk-up apartment building. A limit could also be placed on the number of apartments that a multistory building can have before an elevator is required. In order to ensure that the above limits do not harm the feasibility of development overall, these new requirements should come at the same time as other measures to bring down costs. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The simplest measures to bring down cost would be to allow smaller elevator cabin sizes for smaller buildings in particular. For an elevator that accommodates a wheelchair (and not a stretcher), the required size should be fixed at that of a standard European type 2 elevator car for small buildings: 1.1 m × 1.4 m, or 3 ft., 7 in. × 4 ft., 7 in. The current ICC A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities standard already acknowledges that an even smaller elevator car can accommodate a wheelchair, with 3 ft., 6 in. × 4 ft., 6 in. being the minimum required internal dimensions for an existing building.\u003Csup>275\u003C\u002Fsup> The definition of a small building should be set at any building (or portion of a building served by a single elevator) where there are at most 20 units that are not on the ground floor of the building, with today’s cabin size remaining in place for any building with more than 20 apartments located above or below the level of entry. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The logic behind reducing the allowed size of cabins for small buildings is twofold. Firstly, with so few apartments, an elevator user is unlikely to have to share an elevator with anybody outside of their household on any given trip. Secondly, developers have been shown to often avoid installing any elevator at all in small buildings (see 2.1.1, “Walk-ups and elevator buildings”), and even a smaller, wheelchair-accessible elevator in these buildings would be an upgrade. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Smaller elevator cars could also be used to address a problem that a number of wheelchair users brought up in interviews, which is a lack of redundancy. Currently, voluntary elevator planning guidelines for multifamily call for one cab for every 50 to 100 units. For small- or mid-sized buildings, this often means there is only one elevator car available, and when it’s placed out of service for inspections, service, repair, or modernization, people who depend on the elevator have no way of getting in or out of their apartment. In order to encourage developers to increase the number of elevators, 1.1 m × 1.4 m cabins should be allowed for buildings (or segments of buildings) with at least two elevators, and a ratio of no more than 35 non-ground floor units for each elevator. So, for example, the developer of a 50-unit building would have the option to either install a single elevator meeting today’s North American accessibility standards, or two elevators meeting European accessibility standards.  \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond the wheelchair requirement, elevator cars in the United States and Canada are also larger than is typical abroad because of the requirement to accommodate a 7-ft. stretcher in a fully extended position. This requirement was not subjected to a cost-benefit analysis, and has not yielded better clinical health outcomes in North America compared to regions that do not require elevators to fit stretchers. In order to bring stretcher elevator requirements in North America more in line with those abroad, the trigger could be aligned with the definition of a high-rise building (measuring 75 feet from ground level to the top of the finished floor on the highest occupied story, or starting at around eight stories). More conservatively, the requirement could apply to buildings of at least six or seven stories. In situations where a stretcher is required but a wheelchair turning radius is not (for example, if the building has few apartments, or the developer has opted to provide a high ratio of elevators to residential units), then a 1.1 m × 2.1 m, 1,000-kg (2,200-lb.) European stretcher elevator could suffice, rather than the current 3,500-lb. stretcher elevators found in North America that fit a stretcher diagonally. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6.2 Technical codes and standards \u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The United States and Canada have been left on a technological island when it comes to elevator designs and components with the ASME A17.1\u002FCSA B44 elevator standard and related web of technical rules. This raises costs in a number of ways, the most pernicious of which is by restricting entry into the market by small and mid-sized foreign firms, both for entire elevator kits and also for specific components. Intracontinental variations in adoptions also introduce more minor but still impactful differences in regulation. These divergences have not resulted in better safety outcomes in the United States as compared to high-income countries that use the global ISO 8100 codes, and may have harmed building occupant health and safety by limiting the installation of elevators in low- and mid-rise buildings, and pushing users towards more dangerous stairs. State and local elevator safety boards who further modify the model A17.1\u002FB44 code introduce differences without any deep analysis of the impacts, and it is not plausible that jurisdictions of a few million people (or fewer in some cases) have the capacity to do any such analysis better than much larger standards-setting bodies. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At a minimum, state and local deviation from the latest ASME A17.1\u002FCSA B44 code should not be allowed. Going further, these North America-specific technical codes and standards should be phased out entirely, and the United States and Canada should join the rest of the world in adopting the ISO 8100 family of standards and the related global harmonized web of technical rules. As an interim step, both existing North American and global harmonized codes and standards could be equal options for compliance. The latter task – aligning not just the elevator safety codes and standards with those of the rest of the world, but also the referenced standards regulating things like electrical standards – would require the cooperation of regulators and construction sectors outside of the elevator industry. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6.3 Labor\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">On-site labor is the largest single driver of cost for every element of installing and maintaining a functioning elevator, and the issues around it are some of the most intractable. Unlike elevator car sizes and technical codes and standards, the labor issues affecting the industry are often not directly legislated, but rather hammered out privately between the IUEC and elevator manufacturers. Nevertheless, government policy plays a role in shaping these negotiations, and there are a number of measures that governments could take to reduce labor costs. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">To ease the chronic labor shortage within the highly skilled and licensed construction trades generally, governments should take a more active role in educating workers, through state-sponsored technical and vocational training. The exact contours that this might take are beyond the scope of this report, but Central Europe in particular offers good models. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Following the European model, the field of new installations should also be opened up to foreign labor. New installations are the most physically demanding and least intellectually challenging elevator subsector, and tend to be less desirable assignments among mechanics. Unlike inspections, service, repairs, and modernizations, where work is steady regardless of economic conditions, demand for new installations rises and falls with the real estate cycle. More labor is needed during boom times, and less is needed during recessions and troughs in the business cycle. A labor force that aims to eliminate unemployment among its members, as the IUEC does, is not able to both ramp up and down new installations while at the same time providing reliable service for existing devices – the goals are simply not compatible. Either the labor force must be sized to provide an adequate number of workers during boom times and substantial unemployment must be accepted during quieter periods, or the labor force must be sized to provide full employment during recessions and some level of work during busier times must be turned away (likely through what economists term “demand destruction,” or prices so high that developers and building owners forgo new installations, service, and modernizations). The use of foreign labor for new installations is how this circle is squared in Europe, and it is worth considering in North America. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Currently, both immigration policy and licensure stand in the way of foreign labor in the elevator industry. In the United States, there is no legal pathway for construction workers to enter the country. Huge numbers of undocumented immigrants work in construction generally, but not in the elevator sector, where licensure and the consolidated nature of the industry make employing undocumented immigrants untenable – Schindler or Otis, for example, cannot employ the same labor practices as a small framing or roofing subcontractor. Skilled construction workers cannot enter the country on H-1B visas, since the program is only open to workers whose fields require at least a bachelor’s degree. New legal immigration pathways should therefore be created for skilled construction workers, including elevator mechanics. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Licensure is an increasingly common feature of the elevator industry in both North America and Europe, and is appropriate given the greater technical demands placed on mechanics. However, the American practice of requiring licensure for mechanics working on new installations complicates labor mobility. In Europe, licensure is usually limited to mechanics working on service and maintenance. New installation work can be performed underneath somebody with a license or some certification, who checks the work and signs off on the installation during the commissioning process. This allows foreign workers, who have experience but cannot reasonably obtain licensure in dozens of different countries or subnational jurisdictions, to work in the field, and could be emulated in the United States and Canada. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beyond reforming licensure laws to accommodate foreign workers, the state-by-state system of licensure in the United States should also be reformed. There are not significant enough differences in elevator design between states to justify individual regimes in each state. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Finally, bringing technical codes and standards in line with those of other countries would make it easier for foreign small- and mid-sized manufacturers with more efficient labor practices to enter the market, unencumbered by the IUEC’s master contract and settlement agreements about things like which holes belong to whom. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6.4 U.S. federal government role\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the United States, regulation of elevators and construction generally is left up to states, counties, municipalities, or even other types of authorities, justified by the national tradition of federalism. The industry, however, has become so complex that it is questionable whether subnational jurisdictions have the capacity to properly regulate the industry. At a minimum, the system of roughly 100 different North American jurisdictions reviewing and adopting different editions of the A17.1\u002FB44 model code, with slight amendments, is duplicative, inefficient, and introduces opportunities for rent-seeking and error. There are no differences in conditions between cities and states to justify separate codes. The federal government is in a better position to do research and decide on standards than jurisdictions that represent and are funded by small numbers of people. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Constitutionally, there are many issues related to elevators that could put regulation well within the federal government’s purview. The federal government should develop reforms for the issues discussed in this report and force their adoption by states and other jurisdictions by making housing or transportation funding contingent on adopting nationally harmonized regulations, in the same way that the U.S. federal government has imposed a uniform minimum drinking age across the country.\u003Csup>276\u003C\u002Fsup> The issue of codes and standards – both for elevator safety and the various standards referenced by the main elevator safety code – is especially ripe for intervention by a large bureaucracy like the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development or the Department of Commerce, through the National Institute of Standards and Technology. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7. Areas for further research\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This report is the first to ever examine the North American elevator industry from a global perspective, and there are many opportunities for further research to refine ideas and apply them to other areas. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This report focused on mid-rise elevators, since they are the most common in any country larger than a city-state, and the heterogeneity of high-rise installations makes them difficult to compare to each other. However there are many themes that are worth exploring in more depth, from cost to ratios provided in new buildings. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">American architects and developers have cited various accessibility requirements that only apply when an elevator is provided as a disincentive to provide elevators in the first place. While an elevator is not required in many multifamily buildings, voluntarily installing one may trigger accessibility requirements, particularly within units, that may not otherwise apply. This disincentive to provide elevators could be fixed in a number of ways, but before deciding on a path, a better understanding of the costs and benefits of accessibility is needed. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Elevators are a critical accessibility tool, but are only effective insofar as they work. Many American wheelchair users said they would not consider living in a building with only a single elevator, due to the risk of downtime trapping them in or out of their apartment. Global elevator firms have data on reliability and uptime on different continents, but this data was not made available for this report. There are many peculiarities of the North American market that might influence reliability one way or another – the greater use placed on individual elevators due to the greater number of apartments served by each device, the larger size of cabins, the more limited market for parts, and the unique labor market. More research is necessary to determine whether any of these differences affect reliability in any significant way. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The technical codes and standards referenced by the main elevator safety rules deserve hundreds of pages of research and analysis. The issue pervades not only the elevator industry but also the broader construction sector, and drives market differences in everything from gypsum board to heat pumps. Significant differences in regulation should be analyzed for usefulness, but even more pernicious might be the insignificant ones – separating markets for parts and materials, without any meaningful physical differences in allowed materials. Electrical standards – with America using the National Electrical Code (NEC, or NFPA 70), and Europe and much of the rest of the world using IEC 60364 – were singled out by one interviewee as impactful in the field of elevator components, and are worthy of more study. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">One topic that was not covered at all in this report is freight elevators. Deindustrialization has been a major theme of American urbanism and politics throughout the second half of the 20th century and into the 21st, as vertical urban warehouses and factories gave way to sprawling, single-story facilities in the suburbs and exurbs. Reindustrialization has been on the minds of many policymakers in America, with the energy transition, supply chain security, and growing demand for logistics facilities driving increased interest in industrial real estate. Freight elevators were in heavy use in multistory industrial buildings in U.S. cities in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and are still common in East Asia and, to a lesser degree, Europe. And possible reindustrialization of North America’s urban cores will have to involve freight elevators – modern multistory warehouses in U.S. cities are built with truck ramps, but the amount of land needed limits their development. There may also be smaller-scale freight applications that could smooth out the bumps of urban logistics. One person with experience developing grocery stores in Germany, for example, said that freight elevators are often installed in urban format stores there. They are rarely seen in New York City, on the other hand, which has problems with breaks in the cold chain when perishable food needs to be hauled by hand into basement storage. Freight elevators likely see the same cost premium in North America as passenger elevators, and their cost could impede broader efforts to bring denser industry back to North American cities. More research is needed to confirm this, and to identify any issues that are separate from those of passenger elevators. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This report was not able to cover the elevator industry in depth in high-income Asian countries like Japan and South Korea, due to linguistic gaps. While our preliminary research shows that East Asian costs are likely similar to those in Europe, the details of how the industry functions are still opaque to this author. The relatively low-immigration environment of South Korea, for example, or Japan’s unique safety code (it is the only major country in the world outside of North America that has not harmonized to the dominant European standard) may provide insights into how North America can bring down costs without fully adapting to the European paradigm.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Due to the greater rate of unionization, nonexistence of subcontracting, and higher salaries in Norway’s elevator sector, further research there would be valuable to understand how these factors influence price in an environment where, unlike in North America, elevator car sizes are more modest, equipment is held to global harmonized standards, and there are no union contract provisions against preassembly and prefabrication. We were not able to obtain any quotes for new installations in Norway, but doing so would help disaggregate the price effects of similar policies in North America. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While we tried to integrate Canadian perspectives into this report as much as possible, the smaller size of the market made research difficult. There are some hints that Canadian new installation prices might be slightly lower than in the U.S., and also that some of the issues identified in the United States might be somewhat less of a factor in Canada – greater acceptance of new technology within the confines of the A17.1\u002FB44 standard, and perhaps somewhat more flexible labor in terms of contract provisions and immigration law.\u003Csup>277\u003C\u002Fsup>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Ch2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Bibliography\u003C\u002Fh2>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">8 CCR § 3141, Conveyances Covered by ASME A17.1-2004, Title 8, Division 1, Chapter 4, Subchapter 7, Group 5,Article 41 Cal. Code Regs. § (n.d.). \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.dir.ca.gov\u002Ftitle8\u002FSb6a41.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.dir.ca.gov\u002Ftitle8\u002FSb6a41.html\u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“164 S. 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href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.macon-bau.de\u002F%20wp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2021\u002F12\u002FMACON_%20aktuell_02.2021.pdf\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.macon-bau.de\u002F wp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2021\u002F12\u002FMACON_ aktuell_02.2021.pdf \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“National Construction Code, Volume One, Section E, Part E3.” Australian Building Codes Board, 2022. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fncc.abcb.gov.au\u002Feditions\u002Fncc-2022\u002Fadopted\u002Fvolume-one&ved=2ahUKEwiYjd2hpLyPAxWEhP0HHcF9K8UQFnoECBEQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2zzZhB5mOXdWIs2__4DBOL\">https:\u002F\u002Fncc.abcb.gov.au\u002Feditions\u002Fncc- 2022\u002Fadopted\u002Fvolume-one\u002Fe-services-and-equipment\u002Fpart-e3-lift-installations \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“National Elevator Bargaining Association Agreement with International Union of Elevator Constructors, July 9, 2022 to July 8, 2027,” n.d. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fwww.iuec.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2022-2027-NEBA-Agreement.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwihvbOnpLyPAxVpgf0HHYH_KkkQFnoECBYQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2AZvU39lfZFNMQz6f6ZXOa\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.iuec.org\u002Fwp-content\u002F uploads\u002F2022-2027-NEBA-Agreement.pdf \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">National Elevator Industry Educational Program. “Apprenticeship Opportunities,” n.d. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.neiep.org\u002Felevator-apprenticeship-recruitment-opportunities\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.neiep.org\u002Felevator-apprenticeship-recruitment-opportunities \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">National Elevator Industry Educational Program. “NEIEP Help Center,” n.d. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fwww.neiep.org\u002Fiuec-apprenticeship-faq\u002F&ved=2ahUKEwjVipm3pLyPAxWQgv0HHXETE9AQjJEMegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw3Xxyy-__yaT4VE-FQ8muOf\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.neiep. org\u002Fiuec-apprenticeship-faq\u002F?id=ElevatorIndustryFAQ\u003C\u002Fa> \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates.” United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 2021. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fwww.bls.gov\u002Foes\u002F2021\u002Fmay\u002Foes_nat.htm&ved=2ahUKEwjm_MC8pLyPAxU8hP0HHTchFxMQFnoECBoQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2ojJGjh-u6V7MwfyqLgUet\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.bls.gov\u002Foes\u002F2021\u002Fmay\u002F oes_nat.htm \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">NEBA and Schindler v. IUEC, Local 14, No. Case 1:12-cv-00159-RJA (W.D.N.Y. February 21, 2012). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">NEBA and Schindler v. Local 5, IUEC, No. 2:21-cv-03871 (E.D. Pa. August 30, 2021). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">NEBA, Fujitec v. IUEC, Local 4, No. 1:18-cv-10112-MLW (D. Mass. January 19, 2018). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“NEII Comments on DOSH’s ‘Justification for Proposed State of California Title 8 Group V Elevator Safety Orders.’” National Elevator Industry, Inc., June 6, 2016. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“NEII-1: Building Transportation Standards and Guidelines,” 2018. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“Neubau Zweifamilienhaus Emmen.” Schweizer Baudokumentation, March 28, 2023.\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“New Temporary Residence Permit for Belarusians Holding Humanitarian Visas.” Polish Office for Foreigners, July 7, 2022. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fwww.gov.pl\u002Fweb\u002Fudsc-en\u002Fnew-temporary-residence-permit-for-belarusians-holding-humanitarian-visas&ved=2ahUKEwiKhcnLpLyPAxV8gf0HHWzROhwQFnoECB4QAQ&usg=AOvVaw1mZDz1zeLm65Jt8rkJ7MkA\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.gov.pl\u002Fweb\u002Fudsc-en\u002F new-temporary-residence-permit-for-belarusians-holding-humanitarian-visas \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“New York City Zoning Resolution.” New York City Department of City Planning, December 20, 2023. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fzr.planning.nyc.gov\u002Findex.php\">https:\u002F\u002Fzr.planning.nyc.gov\u002Findex.php \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">New York Times. “To Spend $300,000 on Bronx Houses.” May 19, 1938, sec. L. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">New York Times. “Urges Remodeling of Old Buildings.” June 16, 1940, sec. Real Estate. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“News Release: National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries in 2022.” United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 19, 2023. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.bls.gov\u002Fnews.release\u002F%20pdf\u002Fcfoi.pdf\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.bls.gov\u002Fnews.release\u002F pdf\u002Fcfoi.pdf \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“Número de viviendas principales según tipo de edificación y régimen de tenencia.” Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Accessed January 28, 2024. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ine.es\u002Fjaxi\u002FTabla.htm%3Fpath%3D\u002Ft20\u002Fp274\u002Fserie\u002Fdef\u002Fp07\u002Fl0\u002F%26file%3D01002.px%26L%3D0&ved=2ahUKEwiVn4DwpLyPAxUDhP0HHQWXHLAQFnoECBMQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2PlyJ9juCxf0O17JHIb_W4\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.ine.es\u002Fjaxi\u002FDatos. htm?path=\u002Ft20\u002Fp274\u002Fserie\u002Fdef\u002Fp07\u002F l0\u002F&file=01002.px \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u003Cstrong>O\u003C\u002Fstrong>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">O’Connor, John. “Quinn Renames Board Chairman despite Alleged Rezko Ties.” State Journal-Register, September 4, 2009. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Feu.sj-r.com\u002Fstory\u002Fnews\u002F2009\u002F09\u002F04\u002Fquinn-renames-board-chairman-despite\u002F42955805007\u002F\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.sj-r.com\u002Fstory\u002F news\u002F2009\u002F09\u002F04\u002Fquinn-renames-board-chairman-despite\u002F42955805007 \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“Office of the Illinois State Fire Marshal Elevator Safety Review Board Meeting.” Keefe Reporting Company, July 14, 2011. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fsfm.illinois.gov\u002Fcontent\u002Fdam\u002Fsoi\u002Fen\u002Fweb\u002Fsfm\u002Fevents\u002Fdocuments\u002Felevatorsafetyreviewboardminutes07-14-2011.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiuyJr_pLyPAxUM9bsIHQzaDYsQFnoECBoQAQ&usg=AOvVaw22yW2-3zD47to_l58syBnh\">https:\u002F\u002Fsfm.illinois.gov\u002Fcontent\u002Fdam\u002Fsoi\u002Fen\u002Fweb\u002Fsfm\u002Fevents\u002Fdocuments\u002Felevatorsafetyreviewboardminut es07-14-2011.pd\u003C\u002Fa>f\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">“Office of the Illinois State Fire Marshal Elevator Safety Review Board Meeting.” Chicago Ridge: Sullivan Reporting Company, November 5, 2020. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fsfm.illinois.gov\u002Fcontent\u002Fdam\u002Fsoi\u002Fen\u002Fweb\u002Fsfm\u002Fevents\u002Fdocuments\u002Felevator-safety-review-board-minutes-20201115.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwju1YqEpbyPAxVf9bsIHTEiKPEQFnoECBcQAQ&usg=AOvVaw12OTzWR3sVpMJJAcG3XlUt\">https:\u002F\u002Fsfm.illinois.gov\u002Fcontent\u002Fdam\u002F soi\u002Fen\u002Fweb\u002Fsfm\u002Fevents\u002Fdocuments\u002F elevator-safety-review-board-minutes-20201115.pdf \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Oracle Elevator v. University of South Carolina, Best Value Bid No. USC-BVB-2485MR, No. 2013-144 (Chief Procurement Officer March 14, 2014). \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Orr, Robert, and Anuska Jain. “The Case for Shortening Medical Education.” Niskanen Center (blog), March 17, 2020. \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.google.com\u002Furl?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https:\u002F\u002Fwww.niskanencenter.org\u002Fwp-content\u002Fuploads\u002F2021\u002F09\u002FCost-Disease-Socialism.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwi868qKpbyPAxW_nP0HHbLBIskQFnoECCAQAQ&usg=AOvVaw0tRLpJMceoolIbYOyiby5a\">https:\u002F\u002Fwww.niskanencenter.org\u002Fthe-case-for-shortening-medical-education \u003C\u002Fa>\u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Oser, Alan S. “Making Tenements Modern.” New York Times, April 4, 1999, sec. 11. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Oser, Alan S. “Outside Elevators May Help Sell Renovated Walk-Ups.” New York Times, December 25, 1983, sec. 8. \u003C\u002Fp>\n\n\n\n\u003Cp class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Otis Elevator Co. v. 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On the cost side, we found that a second stairway for a mid-rise apartment buildings costs roughly $200,000 to construct. On the life safety side, we combined NFIRS data and reports of home fire fatalities from the U.S. Fire Administration, which we joined with property-level data in New York City, through which we found no evidence of any fire fatality attributable to the lack of a second exit in any of the more than 4,000 single-stair apartment buildings of at least four stories in the city. Similarly, we manually reviewed records of fatal fires in Seattle and found the same.\u003C\u002Fp>\n",{"_acf_changed":17},[13971,6974,13878,26,2540,27],"post-865",{"category":7002,"summary":7003,"authors":2947,"additional_information":16,"table_of_contents":16,"summary_group":13973,"full_report_group":13974,"related_footnotes":16},{"sg_file":16,"sg_url":16,"sg_label":16},{"frg_file":16,"frg_url":2949,"frg_label":2950},{"self":13976,"collection":13980,"about":13982,"wp:featuredmedia":13984,"wp:attachment":13986,"curies":13988},[13977],{"href":6975,"targetHints":13978},{"allow":13979},[35],[13981],{"href":7013},[13983],{"href":7016},[13985],{"embeddable":44,"href":6959},[13987],{"href":7021},[13989],{"name":62,"href":63,"templated":44},1781905870762]